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What is a Network?
Spider Net(work)
Computer Networks
Computer network connects two or more autonomous computers.
can be located
Network spread geographically (Country or across Globe) is called WAN (Wide Area Network)
Packet Switching
Applications of Networks
Resource Sharing Hardware (computing resources, disks, printers) Software (application software)
Information Sharing Easy accessibility from anywhere (files, databases) Search Capability (WWW) Communication Email Message broadcast Remote computing Distributed processing (GRID Computing)
Network Topology
The network topology defines the way in which computers, printers, and other devices are connected. A network topology describes the layout of the wire and devices as well as the paths used by data transmissions.
Bus Topology
Commonly referred to as a linear bus, all the devices on a bus topology are connected by one single cable.
Larger networks use the extended star topology also called tree topology. When used with network devices that filter frames or packets, like bridges, switches, and routers, this topology significantly reduces the traffic on the wires by sending packets only to the wires of the destination host.
Ring Topology
A frame travels around the ring, stopping at each node. If a node wants to transmit data, it adds the data as well as the destination address to the frame. The frame then continues around the ring until it finds the destination node, which takes the data out of the frame. Single ring All the devices on the network share a single cable Dual ring The dual ring topology allows data to be sent in both directions.
Mesh Topology
The mesh topology connects all devices (nodes) to each other for redundancy and fault tolerance.
It is used in WANs to interconnect LANs and for mission critical networks like those used by banks and financial institutions.
Implementing the mesh topology is expensive and difficult.
Network Components
Physical Media
Interconnecting Devices Computers
Networking Software
Applications
Networking Media
Networking media can be defined simply as the means by which signals (data) are sent from one computer to another (either by cable or wireless means).
Networking Devices
HUB, Switches, Wireless Access Modems etc. Routers, Points,
Applications
E-mail Searchable Data (Web Sites) E-Commerce News Groups Internet Telephony (VoIP) Video Conferencing Chat Groups Instant Messengers Internet Radio
OSI Model
OSI MODEL
OSI Model
Communication Architecture
Strategy for connecting host computers and other communicating equipment. Defines necessary elements for data communication between devices. A communication architecture, therefore, defines a standard for the communicating hosts. A programmer formats data in a manner defined by the communication architecture and passes it on to the communication software.
Separating communication functions adds flexibility, for example, we do not need to modify the entire host software to include more communication devices.
OSI Model
Layer Architecture
Layer architecture simplifies the network design.
OSI Model
Term open denotes the ability to connect any two systems which conform to the reference model and associated standards.
OSI Model
OSI Model
OSI Model
OSI Model
Physical Layer
Provides physical interface for transmission of information. Defines rules by which bits are passed from one system to another on a physical communication medium. Covers all - mechanical, electrical, functional and procedural - aspects for physical communication. Such characteristics as voltage levels, timing of voltage changes, physical data rates, maximum transmission distances, physical connectors, and other similar attributes are defined by physical layer specifications.
OSI Model
OSI Model
Network Layer
Implements routing of frames (packets) through the network. Defines the most optimum path the packet should take from the source to the destination Defines logical addressing so that any endpoint can be identified. Handles congestion in the network. Facilitates interconnection between heterogeneous networks (Internetworking). The network layer also defines how to fragment a packet into smaller packets to accommodate different media.
OSI Model
Transport Layer
Purpose of this layer is to provide a reliable mechanism for the exchange of data between two processes in different computers. Ensures that the data units are delivered error free.
OSI Model
Session Layer
Session layer provides mechanism for controlling the dialogue between the two end systems. It defines how to start, control and end conversations (called sessions) between applications. This layer requests for a logical connection to be established on an end-users request. Any necessary log-on or password validation is also handled by this layer. Session layer is also responsible for terminating the connection. This layer provides services like dialogue discipline which can be full duplex or half duplex. Session layer can also provide check-pointing mechanism such that if a failure of some sort occurs between checkpoints, all data can be retransmitted from the last checkpoint.
OSI Model
Presentation Layer
Presentation layer defines the format in which the data is to be exchanged between the two communicating entities. Also handles data compression and data encryption (cryptography).
OSI Model
Application Layer
Application layer interacts with application programs and is the highest level of OSI model. Application layer contains management functions to support distributed applications. Examples of application layer are applications such as file transfer, electronic mail, remote login etc.
OSI Model
OSI in Action
A message begins at the top application layer and moves down the OSI layers to the bottom physical layer. As the message descends, each successive OSI model layer adds a header to it. A header is layer-specific information that basically explains what functions the layer carried out. Conversely, at the receiving end, headers are striped from the message as it travels up the corresponding layers.
TCP/IP Model
TCP/IP MODEL
TCP/IP Model
TCP/IP Model
TCP/IP Model
Application Layer
Application programs using the network Transport Layer (TCP/UDP) Management of end-to-end message transmission, error detection and error correction
Network Layer (IP) Handling of datagrams : routing and congestion Data Link Layer
Management of cost effective and reliable data delivery, access to physical networks
Physical Media
PHYSICAL MEDIA
Physical Media
Physical Media
Physical Media
Physical Media
Copper Coaxial Cable - Thick or Thin Unshielded Twisted Pair - CAT 3,4,5,5e&6 Optical Fiber Multimode Singlemode Wireless Short Range Medium Range (Line of Sight) Satellite
Physical Media
Category RG-59
Impedance 75 W
RG-58
RG-11
50 W
50 W
Physical Media
Physical Media
Physical Media
Physical Media
Physical Media
Categories of UTP
UTP comes in several categories that are based on the number of twists in the wires, the diameter of the wires and the material used in the wires. Category 3 is the wiring used primarily for telephone connections. Category 5e and Category 6 are currently the most common Ethernet cables used.
Physical Media
Physical Media
Physical Media
Physical Media
Physical Media
Physical Media
Fiber Media
Optical fibers use light to send information through the optical medium.
It uses the principal of total internal reflection. Modulated light transmissions are used to transmit the signal.
Physical Media
Physical Media
Fiber Media
Light travels through the optical media by the way of total internal reflection. Modulation scheme used is intensity modulation. Two types of Fiber media : Multimode Singlemode Multimode Fiber can support less bandwidth than Singlemode Fiber. Singlemode Fiber has a very small core and carry only one beam of light. It can support Gbps data rates over > 100 Km without using repeaters.
Physical Media
Physical Media
Fiber Media
The bandwidth of the fiber is limited due to the dispersion effect. Distance Bandwidth product of a fiber is almost a constant. Fiber optic cables consist of multiple fibers packed inside protective covering.
Physical Media
Fiber-Optic Cable
Contains one or several glass fibers at its core Surrounding the fibers is a layer called cladding
Physical Media
Physical Media
Wireless Media
Very useful in difficult terrain where cable laying is not possible. Provides mobility communication nodes. to
Right of way and cable laying costs can be reduced. Susceptible to rain, atmospheric variations and Objects in transmission path.
Physical Media
Wireless Media
Indoor : 10 50m : BlueTooth, WLAN
Physical Media
Frequency Bands
Band VLF LF MF HF VHF UHF SHF Range 330 KHz 30300 KHz 300 KHz3 MHz 330 MHz 30300 MHz 300 MHz3 GHz 330 GHz Propagatio n Ground Ground Sky Sky Sky and line-of-sight Application Long-range radio navigation Radio beacons and navigational locators AM radio Citizens band (CB), ship/aircraft communication VHF TV, FM radio
Line-ofsight
Line-ofsight Line-ofsight
EHF
30300 GHz
Physical Media
Wireless LAN
PC
Access Point
Internet
Router
Switch
PC
Access Point
Physical Media
Terrestrial Microwave
Microwaves do not follow the curvature of earth Line-of-Sight transmission Height allows the signal to travel farther
Physical Media
Satellite Communication
Cabling
Cabling
Allows patching
Comfort that infrastructure is OK Components:
Information Outlet with Face Plate Patch Panel UTP Cable Patch Cord
Cabling
Cabling
Patch Panel
Termination punchdown in back Patch cord plugin in front
Cabling
Cabling
Color Codes
Data Tx: 1 & 2 Data Rx: 3 & 6 Crossover 13 26 PoE +VDC: 4 & 5 PoE -VDC: 7 & 8
Cabling
Cabling
Punching Tool
Terminates wires to back of patch panels and in Information Outlets
Cabling
Making Cables
Cabling
Cabling
Cabling Rules
Try to avoid running cables parallel to power cables. Do not bend cables to less than four times the diameter of the cable. If you bundle a group of cables together with cable ties (zip ties), do not over-cinch them. You should be able to turn the tie with fingers. Keep cables away from devices which can introduce noise into them. Here's a short list: copy machines, electric heaters, speakers, printers, TV sets, fluorescent lights, copiers, welding machines, microwave ovens, telephones, fans, elevators, motors, electric ovens, dryers, washing machines, and shop equipment. Avoid stretching UTP cables (tension when pulling cables should not exceed 25 LBS). Do not run UTP cable outside of a building. It presents a very dangerous lightning hazard! Do not use a stapler to secure UTP cables. Use telephone wire/RJ6 coaxial wire hangers which are available at most hardware stores.
Cabling
Cabling
Cabling
Cabling
Cabling
Cabling
Fiber Roles are typically 2 Km. Fiber cables are spliced using Jointers
Faults like fiber cut are located using OTDR (Optical Time Domain Reflectometer)
LAN Technologies
LAN TECHNOLOGIES
LAN Technologies
Technology Options
Ethernet
Fast Ethernet
Gigabit Ethernet 10 Gig Ethernet WLAN
LAN Technologies
Media Access
Ethernet and Wi-Fi are both multi-access technologies
Broadcast medium, shared by many hosts Simultaneous transmissions will result in collisions
The Data Link Layer is divided into two Part MAC Media Access Control) Sublayer and LLC (Logic Link Control) Sublayer
LAN Technologies
802.3 Ethernet
Carrier-sense multiple access with collision detection (CSMA/CD). CS = carrier sense MA = multiple access CD = collision detection
LAN Technologies
Ethernet CSMA/CD
CSMA/CD (carrier sense multiple access with collision detection) media access protocol is used. Data is transmitted in the form of packets. Sense channel prior to actual packet transmission. Transmit packet only if channel is sensed idle; else, defer the transmission until channel becomes idle. After packet transmission is started, the node monitors its own transmission to see if the packet has experienced a collision. If the packet is observed to be undergoing a collision, the transmission is aborted and the packet is retransmitted after a random interval of time using Binary Exponential Backoff algorithm.
LAN Technologies
Ethernet Address
End nodes are identified by their Ethernet Addresses (MAC Address or Hardware Address) which is a unique 6 Byte address. MAC Address is represented in Hexa Decimal format e.g 00:05:5D:FE:10:0A The first 3 bytes identify a vendor (also called prefix) and the last 3 bytes are unique for every host or device
LAN Technologies
Length
LAN Technologies
Ethernet
10 Base 5 (Thicknet) (Bus Topology)
LAN Technologies
Repeater
LAN Technologies
Hub
LAN Technologies
Ethernet
Physical Media :10 Base5 10 Base2 10 BaseT 10 BaseFL Thick Co-axial Cable with Bus Topology Thin Co-axial Cable with Bus Topology UTP Cat 3/5 with Tree Topology Multimode/Singlemode Fiber with Tree Topology
LAN Technologies
Fast Ethernet
100 Mbps bandwidth
Uses same CSMA/CD media access protocol and packet format as in Ethernet.
100BaseTX (UTP) and 100BaseFX (Fiber) standards Physical media :100 BaseTX - UTP Cat 5e 100 BaseFX - Multimode / Singlemode Fiber Full Duplex/Half Duplex operations.
LAN Technologies
Fast Ethernet
Provision for Auto-Negotiation of media speed: 10 Mbps or 100Mbps (popularly available for copper media only). Maximum Segment Length 100 Base TX - 100 m 100 Base FX - 2 Km (Multimode Fiber) 100 Base FX - 20 km (Singlemode Fiber)
LAN Technologies
Gigabit Ethernet
1 Gbps bandwidth.
Uses same CSMA/CD media access protocol as in Ethernet and is backward compatible (10/100/100 modules are available).
1000BaseT (UTP), 1000BaseSX (Multimode Fiber) and 1000BaseLX (Multimode/Singlemode Fiber) standards. Maximum Segment Length 1000 Base T - 100m (Cat 5e/6) 1000 Base SX - 275 m (Multimode Fiber) 1000 Base LX - 512 m (Multimode Fiber) 1000 Base LX - 20 Km (Singlemode Fiber) 1000 Base LH - 80 Km (Singlemode Fiber)
LAN Technologies
10 Gig Ethernet
10 Gbps bandwidth.
LAN Technologies
Access Point
Provides network connectivity over wireless media An Access Point (AP) is installed to act as Bridge between Wireless and Wired Network The AP is connected to wired network and is equipped with antennae to provide wireless connectivity
LAN Technologies
LAN Technologies
sender RTS
receiver
CTS
data ACK
Before every data transmission Sender sends a Request to Send (RTS) frame containing the length of the transmission Receiver respond with a Clear to Send (CTS) frame Sender sends data Receiver sends an ACK; now another sender can send data When sender doesnt get a CTS back, it assumes collision
LAN Technologies
WLAN : 802.11b
The most popular 802.11 standard currently in deployment.
Supports 1, 2, 5.5 and 11 Mbps data rates in the 2.4 GHz ISM (Industrial-Scientific-Medical) band
LAN Technologies
WLAN : 802.11a
Operates in the 5 GHz UNII (Unlicensed National Information Infrastructure) band Incompatible with devices operating in 2.4GHz Supports Data rates up to 54 Mbps.
LAN Technologies
WLAN : 802.11g
Supports data rates as high as 54 Mbps on the 2.4 GHz band
Repeater
A repeater receives a signal, regenerates it, and passes it on. It can regenerate and retime network signals at the bit level to allow them to travel a longer distance on the media. It operates at Physical Layer of OSI The Four Repeater Rule for 10-Mbps Ethernet should be used as a standard when extending LAN segments. This rule states that no more than four repeaters can be used between hosts on a LAN. This rule is used to limit latency added to frame travel by each repeater.
Hub
Hubs are used to connect multiple nodes to a single physical device, which connects to the network. Hubs are actually multiport repeaters. Using a hub changes the network topology from a linear bus, to a star. With hubs, data arriving over the cables to a hub port is electrically repeated on all the other ports connected to the same network segment, except for the port on which the data was sent.
Bridge
Bridges are used to logically separate network segments within the same network.
They operate at the OSI data link layer (Layer 2) and are independent of higher-layer protocols.
The function of the bridge is to make intelligent decisions about whether or not to pass signals on to the next segment of a network. When a bridge receives a frame on the network, the destination MAC address is looked up in the bridge table to determine whether to filter, flood, or copy the frame onto another segment Broadcast Packets are forwarded
Switch
Switches are Multiport Bridges. Switches provide a unique network segment on each port, thereby separating collision domains. Today, network designers are replacing hubs in their wiring closets with switches to increase their network performance and bandwidth while protecting their existing wiring investments. Like bridges, switches learn certain information about the data packets that are received from various computers on the network. Switches use this information to build forwarding tables to determine the destination of data being sent by one computer to another computer on the network.
switch
WAN Technologies
WAN TECHNOLOGIES
WAN Technologies
Technology Options
Dial-up Leased Line ISDN X.25 Frame Relay ATM DSL Cable Modem Microwave Point-to-Point Link VSAT
WAN Technologies
Dial-up
Uses POTS (Plain Old Telephone System)
WAN Technologies
Dial-up
WAN Technologies
Dial-up
RAS
WAN Technologies
Dial-up
33.6 Kbps
Analog line
Telephone switch
Telephone switch
Modem Modem
56 Kbps
Telephone switch
Access server
Modem
E1
WAN Technologies
Leased Line
Used to provide connectivity. point-to-point dedicated network Analog leased line can provide maximum bandwidth of 9.6 Kbps. Digital leased lines can provide bandwidths 64 Kbps, 2 Mbps (E1), 8 Mbps (E2), 34 Mbps (E3) ... :
WAN Technologies
ISP Router
Interface Converter
PSTN
LL Modem G.703
LL Modem V.35
Router
ISP PREMISES
CUSTOMER PREMISES
WAN Technologies
ISDN
Another alternative to using analog telephones lines to establish a connection is ISDN. Speed is one advantage ISDN has over telephone line connections. ISDN network is a switched digital network consisting of ISDN Switches. Each node in the network is identified by hierarchical ISDN address which is of 15 digits. ISDN user accesses network through a set of standard interfaces provided by ISDN User Interfaces.
WAN Technologies
ISDN
Two types of user access are defined Basic Access - Consists of two 64Kbps user channels (B channel)
and one 16Kbps signally channel (D channel) providing service at 144 Kbps.
WAN Technologies
ISDN
ISDN devices
TE1
4W S/T interface TE2 TA
Devices NT1 - Interface Converter TE1 - ISDN devices TE2 Non ISDN Devices (need TA) TA - Terminal Adapter (ISDN Modem)
NT1
2W U interface
WAN Technologies
X.25
Packet switched Network consisting of X.25 switches.
WAN Technologies
WAN Technologies
Frame Relay
Designed to be more efficient than X.25
End to end flow and error control (if used) are done by higher layer
Single user data frame sent from source to destination and ACK (from higher layer) sent back
Two type of Virtual Circuits defined Permanent virtual circuits (PVCs) Switched virtual circuits (SVCs)
WAN Technologies
ATM
Small fixed size packets of 53 bytes, called cells, are used for transferring information. Each cell has 5 bytes of header and 48 bytes of payload for user information. Connection oriented protocol.
A virtual Circuit is established between the communicating nodes before data transfer takes place.
Can be seamlessly used in LANs and WANs. Almost unlimited scalability. Provides quality of service guaranties.
WAN Technologies
Service can be symmetric, in which downstream and upstream speeds are identical, or asymmetric in which downstream speed is faster than upstream speed.
DSL comes in several varieties:
Asymmetric DSL (ADSL) High Data Rate DSL (HDSL) Symmetric DSL (SDSL) Very High Data Rate DSL (VDSL)
WAN Technologies
ADSL
WAN Technologies
Cable Modems
The cable modem connects a computer to the cable company network through the same coaxial cabling that feeds cable TV (CATV) signals to a television set. Uses Cable Modem at Home End and CMTS (Cable Modem Termination System) at Head End. Characteristics: Shared bandwidth technology 10 Mbps to 30 Mbps downstream 128Kbps-3 Mbps upstream Maximum Distance from provider to customer site: 30 miles
WAN Technologies
Cable Modems
WAN Technologies
MICROWAVE LINK
RF Modem
RF Modem
Router
Network
CUSTOMER PREMISES
ISP PREMISES
WAN Technologies
WAN Technologies
VSAT
Very Small Aperture Terminal (VSAT) provide communication between two nodes through a powerful Earth station called a Hub. If two terminals want to communicate, they send their messages to the satellite, which sends it to the Hub and the Hub then broadcasts the message through the satellite.
WAN Technologies
VSAT
Each satellite sends and receives over two bands Uplink: From the earth to the satellite Downlink: From the satellite to the earth Satellite frequency bands
Band Downlink Uplink C 3.7-4.2 GHz 5.925-6.425 GHz Ku 11.7-12.2 GHz 14-14.5 GHz
Ku-band based networks, are used primarily in Europe and North America and utilize the smaller sizes of VSAT antennas. C-band, used extensively in Asia, Africa and Latin America, require larger antenna.
Internet Protocol
INTERNET PROTOCOL
Internet Protocol
IP as a Routed Protocol
IP is a connectionless, unreliable, best-effort delivery protocol. IP accepts whatever data is passed down to it from the upper layers and forwards the data in the form of IP Packets.
Internet Protocol
Packet Propagation
Internet Protocol
IP Address
IP address is for the INTERFACE of a host. Multiple interfaces mean multiple IP addresses, i.e., routers. 32 bit IP address in dotted-decimal notation for ease of reading, i.e., 193.140.195.66 Address 0.0.0.0, 127.0.0.1 and 255.255.255.255 carries special meaning. IP address is divided into a network number and a host number. Also bits in Network or Host Address cannot be all 0 or 1.
Internet Protocol
IP Address
Internet Protocol
IP Address
Internet Protocol
IP Address
Class A : Address begins with bit 0. It has 8 bit network number (range 0.0.0.0-to-127.255.255.255), 24 bit host number. Class B : Address begins with bits 10. It has 16 bit network number (range 128.0.0.0-to-191.255.255.255), 16 bit host number.
Class C : Address begins with bits 110. It has 24 bit network number (range 192.0.0.0-to-223.255.255.255), 8 bit host number.
Class D : Begins with 1110, multicast addresses (224.0.0.0to-239.255.255.255) Class E : Begins with 11110, unused
Internet Protocol
Subnet Mask
Consider IP address = 192.168.2.25 First few bits (left to right) identify network/subnet Remaining bits identify host/interface Number of subnet bits is called subnet mask, e.g.
Internet Protocol
Internet Protocol
IP Configuration of an Interface
Static DHCP
Internet Protocol
ARP
ARP (Address Resolution Protocol) is used in Ethernet Networks to find the MAC address of a node given its IP address. Source node (say 192.168.2.32) sends broadcast message (ARP Request) on its subnet asking ``Who is 192.168.2.33. All computers on subnet receive this request Destination responds (ARP Reply) since it has 192.168.2.33 Provides its MAC address in response
Internet Protocol
IPv6
Internet Protocol Version 4 is the most popular protocol in use today, although there are some questions about its capability to serve the Internet community much longer. IPv4 was finished in the 1970s and has started to show its age. The main issue surrounding IPv4 is addressingor, the lack of addressingbecause many experts believe that we are nearly out of the four billion addresses available in IPv4. Although this seems like a very large number of addresses, multiple large blocks are given to government agencies and large organizations. IPv6 could be the solution to many problems posed by IPv4
Internet Protocol
IPv6
IPv6 uses 128 bit address instead of 32 bit address.
The IPv6 addresses are being distributed and are supposed to be used based on geographical location.
Internet Applications
INTERNET APPLICATIONS
Internet Applications
Internet Applications
Domain Name Service
Proxy Service
Mail Service Web Service
DNS
DNS
DNS
.com
.net
.org
.in
.tcd www
.ac
.co
.iitk
www
DNS Setup
DNS Operation
A DNS server maintains the name to IP address mapping of the domain for which it is the name server. The DNS server for a domain is registered with the domain registrar and the entry is maintained by the Internet RootServers (13) or Country Level Root-Servers. Whenever a server is queried, if doesnt have the answer, the root servers are contacted.
The root servers refer to the DNS server for that domain (in case the domain is a top level domain) or the Country Root Server (in case the domain is country level domain).
Proxy Server
PROXY SERVER
Proxy Server
Internet Connections
ISP networ k Bandwidth-limited links ISP network ISP networ k
Backbone networks
Customer Networks
Proxy Server
Internet Connections
Cost of connections is based on bandwidth
Proxy Server
browser
proxy
web
Proxy Server
Proxy Server
Why Cache?
Shorter response time
Proxy Server
MS proxy server
WinProxy Squid Squid is popular because it is powerful, configurable and free Many others
Web Server
WEB SERVER
Web Server
Web Server
HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol) is used to transfer web pages from a Web Server to Web Client (Browser) Web Pages are arranged in a directory structure in the Web Server HTTP supports CGI (Common Gateway interface) HTTP supports Virtual Hosting (Hosting multiple sites on the same server) Popular Web Servers Apache Windows IIS IBM Websphere
Mail Architecture
Internet
Mail Server
Mail Server
Mail Client
Mail Client
Mail Architecture
Mail Architecture
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) is transfer mail between Mail Servers over Internet used to
Post Office Protocol (PoP) and Interactive Mail Access Protocol (IMAP) is used between Client and Mail Server to retrieve mails The mail server of a domain is identified by the MX record of that domain
Popular Mail Servers Sendmail/Postfix Microsoft Exchange Server IBM Lotus