QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH METHODOLOGIES

SINGLE-SUBJECT RESEARCH
Presented by: Anita Binti Zahari ED 7701A2

ESSENTIAL CHARACTERISTICS
Data

are collected and analyzed for only one subject at one time. Most commonly used to study the changes in behavior

THE GRAPHING OF SINGLE-SUBJECT DESIGNS

Researchers primarily use line graphs to; Present their data Illustrate the effects of a particular intervention or treatment.

THE A-B DESIGN

Collecting

data on the same subject, operating as his or her own control under two conditions or phases. First condition (A); pretreatment condition Second condition (B); treatment or intervention condition, introduced and maintained for a period of time. figure 14.2 A-B Design.jpg

DISADVANTAGE OF A-B DESIGN

Researcher

does not know whether any behavior change occurred because of the treatment.

THE A-B-A DESIGN

Sometimes

called reversal design Researchers simply add another baseline period To get stronger evidence for the effectiveness of the intervention Reduce threats to internal validity

figure 14.3 A-B-A Design.jpg

DISADVANTAGE OF A-B-A DESIGN

It

involves leaving the subjects in the A condition.

Studies

ended without some degree of final improvement.

THE A-B-A-B DESIGN

Two baseline periods are combined with two treatment periods. Permits the effectiveness of the treatment. Avoids leaving subject without an intervention. Demonstrate that dependent variable changes as independent variable is applied.

figure 14.4 A-B-A-B Design.jpg

DISADVANTAGES OF A-B-A-B DESIGN

The

possibility of data-collector

bias
An

instrumentation effect; need for an extensive number of data collections period

THE B-A-B DESIGN

Involves

a treatment followed by a baseline by a return to the treatment. when there is a lack of

Appropriate

behavior.
figure

14.5 B-A-B Design.jpg

THE A-B-C-B DESIGN

Further

modification of the A-B-A design.

The

intervention is changed to control for any extra attention the subject may have received. (or selective) praise is critical for improved responsiveness. 14.6 A-B-C-B Design.jpg

Contingent

figure

MULTIPLE-BASELINE DESIGNS
Researcher

do more than collect data on one

behavior. They collect on several behaviors for one subject. Researchers systematically apply the treatment at different time for each behavior. figure 14.8 Multiple-Baseline Design.jpg Treatment is applied to change behaviors accordingly.

THREATS TO INTERNAL VALIDITY

1. 2.

Condition length Number of variables changed when moving

from one condition to another.

3.

Degree and speed of change.

4.
5.

Return to baseline level

Independence of behavior

6.

Number of baseline

THINGS TO PONDER
Which

do you think is easier to conduct: single subject or group comparison research? Why? sorts of behaviors might require only a few data points to establish a baseline?

What

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH METHODOLOGIES

CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH

THE NATURE OF CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH

Sometimes called associational research It investigates the possibility of relationships between only two variables Also sometimes referred to as a form of descriptive research Describes the degree to which two or more quantitative variables are related

PURPOSES OF CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH

1.

Two basic purposes Help explain important human behaviors (Explanatory Studies)

2.

Predict likely outcomes (Prediction Studies)

EXPLANOTARY STUDIES
Researchers often investigate a number of variables they believe are related to a more complex variable. Unrelated variables dropped from further consideration Most researchers most probably trying to gain some ideas about cause and effect However it does not establish cause and effect

PREDICTION STUDIES
Predict a score on one variable if a score on the other variable is known Determine the predictive validity of measuring instruments Predictor Variable; variable that is used to make the prediction Criterion Variable; variable about which the prediction is made

USING SCATTER PLOTS TO PREDICT A SCORE

We can use the scatter plots to find a correlation between the variables correlational research.pptx

A SIMPLE PREDICTION EQUATION

Used

to express the regression

line
Y'

We

gain confidence in using the prediction equation to make future predictions if there is a close similarity between two results

MORE COMPLEX CORRELATIONAL TECHNIQUES

1. Multiple Regressions; technique that enables researchers to determine a correlation between a criterion variable
The

best combination of two or more predictor variables

2. The Coefficient of Multiple Correlation

Symbolized by R; indicates the strength of the correlation between the combination of the predictor variables and the criterion variables. multiple correlation.jpg The higher R is, the more reliable a prediction will be

3. The Coefficient of Determination

The square of the correlation between a predictor and a criterion variable

Indicates the percentage of the variability among the criterion scores that can be attributed to differences in the scores on the predictor variable

4. Discriminant Function Analysis

Technique used when the technique of multiple regression cannot be used when the criterion variable is categorical

5. Factor Analysis

Technique that allows a researcher to determine if many variables can be described by a few factors.

BASIC STEPS IN CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH

1.

Problem Selection Three major types of problems; a. is variable X related to variable Y? b. how well does variable P predict variable C? c. What are the relationship among a large number of variables and what predictions can be made?

2. Sample

Should be selected carefully, and if possible, randomly. Not less than 30.

3.

Instruments
Most correlational studies involve the administration of some types of instruments (tests, questionnaire, and so on).

4.

Design and Procedures

Design used quite straightforward.

5.

Data Collection
Data on both variables will usually be collected in a short time. Instruments used are administered in a single session or two sessions

THREATS TO INTERNAL VALIDITY

There are some threats identified in conducting correlational research

1.

Subject Characteristics
Individuals or groups have two or more characteristics; might be a cause of variation in the other two variables.

2. Location Location is different for different subject One location may be more comfortable compared to others 3. Instrumentation Instrument decay; care must be taken to ensure the observers dont become tired, bored or inattentive Data collector characteristics; different gender, age or ethnicity may affect specific response

4. Testing

Experience of responding to the first instrument may influence subject responses to the second instrument

5. Mortality

Loss of subjects may make a relationship more (or less) likely in the remaining data

EVALUATING THREATS TO INTERNAL VALIDITY

Follows a procedure similar to the experimental research.

1.

Subject Characteristics
Four of many possible characteristics a. Severity of disability b. Socioeconomic level of parents c. Physical strength and coordination d. Physical appearance

2. Mortality

Loss of subjects can be expected to reduce magnitude of correlation

3. Location

Threats could be controlled by independently assessing the job-site environments.

4. Instrumentation
Instrument decay; observations should scheduled Data collector characteristics; interaction of data collectors and supervisors is a necessary parts Data collector bias; observers should have no knowledge of job ratings