HUMAN FACTORS IN ENGINEERING & DESIGN

Chapter III: HUMAN OUTPUT & CONTROL Topics: Basics of Human motion activities Bio Mechanics of Motion Functions of Control Factors influencing controls Design considerations of control devices

HUMAN OUTPUT & CONTROL

Basics of Human Motion Activities:
Human beings engaged in work-related, leisure, sports activities Body undergoes changes Physiological, Psychological &
cognitive

Outside Effecter Stress Body change Strain Work intensity within limits no long term wear & tear Stress: Task factor that impinges on individual Physical: Heavy work, Heat-Cold etc Emotional: Danger, insecurity, loneliness, info overload

Basics of Human Motion Activities:

Strain: Effect of stress on individual Strain measured by data collected from body changes like Oxygen consumption, Blood chemistry, heart rate , attitude, work rate, errors etc Source of stress for one may not be for another
individual characteristics differ physical, emotional, attitudinal.

Basics of Human Motion Activities:

Human Activity Continuum: Indicates classification of activities & the effects on body due to stresses
Physical Psychomotor Cognitive

Dynamic Static Activity Loading Bicycle riding Holding work & assembling
Physical

Sensory Functions
Light assembly work
Function

Thinking , Calculating Arithmetic work, planning

Mental

Stress & Performance

Maximum Performance at Optimum Stress

Increased stress enhances performance

Stress

Increased stress drops efficiency Forgetting to attend meetings , lower quality of work

Primary sources of Job Stress

Work Place arrangement: Location, dimensions Work Content: Speed & Accuracy requirement

Work Organization: Work-Rest cycle, Start-Stop time

Work Environment: Physical & Social

Muscle Physiology
Types of Muscles: Striated - Skeletal Cardiac - Heart Smooth Walls of blood vessels & internal organs Focus on Striated & Cardiac Number of Muscles: 600 400 are Skeletal (appearing in pairs) : 80 of which carry out the most vigorous activities Are attached to bones through tendons.

Muscle Physiology

Energy required for muscle to contract is provided by the digested food Carbohydrates, fats & to a small extent Proteins. Muscle fibres are activated by motor nerves emanating from spinal cord either at the conscious level or reflex level. A single motor nerve fibre activating a group of muscle fibres is called a Motor Unit

Measure of Physiological Strain

Kilocalorie is the measure of Energy Defined as the Heat required to raise the temperature of 1 KG of water from 15oC to 16oC.
Energy content food is measured as Calorie is actually 1 Kilocalorie. Physiological Strain can be assessed with energy expenditure & Consumption
Max Aerobic Power : Oxygen Uptake Heart Rate : Tread Mill
Rate of Work

Air Intake

Work efficiency
All Energy expended by a person does not end up in useful work. 70 % ends up in heat & unproductive static efforts.

Work Output
Work Efficiency = Energy Consumption x 100 %

Consumption of Energy Energy Costs

Energy consumption on day-to-day activities:

Activity Sleeping Sitting Standing

Kcal / Min 1.3 1.6 2.25

Walking (Level) 2 Km/hr Cleaning / Ironing Cycling (16 Km/hr)

2.1 23 5.2

Energy Costs for Grades of Work

Activity
Rest

Very Light Work

Light Work Moderate Work Heavy Work Very Heavy Work

Kcal / Min 1.5 1.6 2.5 2.5 - 5 5 7.5 7.5 - 10 10 12.5

Work
Sitting

Light Assembly
Soldering, Bricklaying, Lab work Carpentry, mowing Shoveling (8 Kg), Walking upstairs, chopping wood Heat Furnace, Boiler room

Unduly Heavy Work

> 12.5

Equivalent to carrying 10 KG upstairs at 15 M/sec

Factors influencing Energy Expenditure

Use the method that utilizes the least energy to keep the Strain within permissible limits Method of Work:

Factors influencing Energy Expenditure

Tool Design (Type of Implements):

Normal Recommended Energy Limits

Number of Hours (Ayoub & Mital) 8 hour day work Allowable energy expenditure (Average)
Men : 5 Kcal/Min Women: 3.35 Kcal/Min Men : 6.25 Kcal/Min Women: 4.2 Kcal/Min

4 Hour day work

Permissible Heart Rate as per Suggs & Splinter Snook & Irvine

Allowable energy expenditure (Upper limit) 115 Beats/Min Leg work: 112 Beats/Min Arm work: 99 Beats/Min

Work Rest Cycles

If the overall level of workload cannot be maintained within recommended limits, then there must be Rest to compensate the excess requirement demanded. Murrells formula on amount of rest required for a given Work Activity: T(W S) R= K 1.5 Where R Rest required, Min
T Total Work Time, Min W Ave Energy Consumption, kcal/min S Reco Ave Energy expdt., kcal/min (taken as 5) K Murrells constant, taken as 5. 1.5 Approx of Energy expenditure at Rest, kcal/min

Strength & Endurance:

Exercise & Training If Improves fitness and be able to perform better physical work without fatigue. Strength: Maximum force the muscle can exert isometrically in a single voluntary effort Static : fixed object Dynamic : object position changing continuously

Factors effecting strength are age, gender, physique, motivation, work content. Peak strength 25 to 30 yrs. Women perform better at lower extreme activities. Female mean Strength 2/3rd Men mean strength

Strength & Endurance:

Endurance: It is the maintenance of a given static muscular force for a period of time called the Endurance Time.
100 Percent of Strength 75 50

@ 25 % Strength,
Endurance time Approx. 10 min

25 0 0 5 Endurance Time, Min 10

Biomechanics of Motion
Types / Range of Body Movement: Occur around movable joints.

Types of joints: Synovial Joints: Hinge Joints Fingers, Knee Pivot Joints Elbow Ball & Socket Joint Shoulder, Hip
Cartilaginous Joints Vertebrae of Spine

Range of Body Movement:

Types of Movements depends on:
Bone structure of the joint. Amount of muscle or tissue (Bulk) around the joint. Elasticity of muscles, tendons & tissues around the joint. Eg.: As the biceps muscle of the upper arm increases, the Flexion - reduction of angle, at the elbow reduces. Ability to touch toe with fingers without bending knees depends on the flexibility of lower back, upper legs & bulk at abdomen. It is called Muscle-Bound concept. Can be improved by training regularly. Flexibility improves ranges of movements, however, increased flexibility reduces stability of Joint. Eg. Football & Wrestling.

Range of Body Movement - Definitions:

Flexion: Movement of segment of body causing a decrease in the angle of the joint. Knee, Hip, Ankle, Wrist Extension: Movement in the opposite direction of Flexion which causes an increase in the angle at the joint. Straightening of the elbow. Hyperextension is the extension of body segment beyond its normal extended position, such as arching the back.

Range of Body Movement - Definitions:

Abduction: Movement of segment of body in a lateral plane away from the midline of the body. Raising the arm sideways Adduction: Movement of segment of body towards the midline of the body. Moving arm from outwards horizontal position to downward vertical position. Rotation: Movement of segment around its own longitudinal axis. Hand & Forearm rotation called as Supination: Results in palm down position Pronation: Results in palm up position

Range of Body Movement - Definitions:

Circumduction: A circular cone-like movement of segment of body swinging of arm in circular movement about the shoulder.

An experimentation in each case with 5th percentile, Mean & 95th percentile range of movement on 100 College students was made.

Flexion & Extension

Elbow Flexion Hip Flexion

Wrist Flexion (A) & Extension (B)

Shoulder Flexion (A)

& Extension (B)

Flexion & Extension

Ankle Flexion (B)

& Extension (A)

Knee Flexion, Standing

Adduction & Abduction

Adduction (A) & Abduction (B)

Hip

Shoulder Adduction (A)& Abduction (B)

Wrist Abduction (A) & Adduction (B)

Rotation & Circumduction

Shoulder Rotation, Lateral (A) & Medial (B) Arm Circumduction

Forearm Rotation: Supination & Pronation

Forearm Supination (A) & Pronation (B)

Range of Body Movement - Definitions:

Characteristics of Motor Responses:

Purposeful physical activity involves the concept of Skill Ability to use the correct muscles with the exact force necessary to perform the desired response with sequence & timing and be able to adapt to changing environmental conditions with consistency.

Types of Motor Responses:

Discrete Movements: Reaching a control stationary button. Repetitive Movements: Hammering a nail. Sequential Movements: Typewriting. Continuous Movements: Steering a car, Band saw. Static Positioning: Hold part while soldering process.

Features of Motor Responses:

1. Error: Difference between the response & set goal is error. Motor skill invariably has a feedback system for better response closed loop control system. Error of selection: Selecting a wooden club to iron club in golf. Error of execution: Using more reflex than necessary person
requires 30 to 80 ms to initiate response which may just be fast enough for preventing a spill from a plastic mug looking like a heavy mug.

Features of Motor Responses:

2. Speed of Movements: Quick response are initiated on basis of stimuli applying brakes in emergency. Here, the Response Time is critical. Reaction Time: Onset of the signal for Response till the beginning of response. Movement Time: From the beginning of response to the end of response.

Movement Time
Start to the end of response depends upon the nature of movement & accuracy required.

Movement Time
Fitts Law: movement time is a logarithmic function of distance when the target size is held constant & visa versa. Movement Time,

2D MT a b. log2 W
a, b empherically derived constants W width of target

D distance of movement from start to target centre

Features of Motor Responses:

2. Accuracy of Movements: More often accuracy of movement of greater importance than speed, within limits. Occurs due to inconsistency in trajectory generated by relevant muscles. Unintentional foot movement to accelerator instead of brake pedal inaccuracy results in accidents.

Functions of Controls
Machines have been devised to perform effectively & efficiently but require instructions / control from humans through Control Devices. Machines cannot be controlled thought, but by act and transmit information to a mechanism information maybe Discrete or Continuous. Control Types vary from conventional Push-Button controls, Slider mechanisms to Touch-Screen technology.

Types of Controls
For transmitting discrete information:

Types of Controls
For transmitting continuous information:

Types of Controls
For transmitting cursor positioning information:

Factors influencing Design of Controls

Overall utility of a control is influenced by certain factors: 1.Identification: Correct &rapid identification required to prevent accidents, it is essentially a coding problem. Methods of Identification Coding are: Shape Coding:

When control operated without visual attention and with tactual sensitivity.
Differentiates different controls so that one can identify blindfolded & operate effectively.

Factors influencing Design of Controls

Texture Coding: This is in addition to Shape Coding

Generally done on knobs by machining them differently to prevent confusion while operation.
-Operator could confuse between same design (flute size) but not between different designs (Knurled & fluted)
Smooth Fluted Knurled

9 & 18 Flutes

Straight Knurl

Diamond Knurl

Factors influencing Design of Controls

Size Coding: Not as useful as that of shape coding. For best results they are superimposed & knurled differently for better identification.
Knurled
3 Dia 2 Dia 1 Dia

Method 1

Method 2

Factors influencing Design of Controls

Location Coding: When visual attention is absent, identifying by location possible with a few switches coded with shape. Shifting from brake to accelerator - Movement through kinesthetic sense.

Switching on the headlight of car without looking at the dash board if several similar switches in the same location leads to error.

Factors influencing Design of Controls

Operational Method: Each control has unique method of operation and can be operated only using that method. Push-Pull variety, Rotary variety. Color Coding: Color used to identify controls Moderate colors with contrasting shades used Color to attach meaning Red indicates emergency Disadvantage : Operator to observe & identify At lower illumination & dusty environment may have to use a second coding method alongside, size coding. cannot be used

Factors influencing Design of Controls

Legend or Label Coding:: Most commonly used method for identification.

Large number of controls can be coded and if properly chosen it is easy to comprehend (Nuclear plants have walls of Control codes in Labels alone difficult to read & comprehend before acting).
Should not be the only means of coding. Labels should be placed above the controls so that the operators hand do not cover them.

 Control Response Ratio: (C-R Ratio) A specific amount of movement will result in a particular amount of system response.
Steering Wheel rotation leads to movement of wheel to the desired level.

System response may or may not be represented on the display. Control movement display: Linear (lever, vertical)
or Angular (Knobs, Circular displays)

Ratio of movement of the Control devise to the movement of system response is called ControlResponse Ratio.
Sensitive Control: Slight control movement results in large response movement. CR ratio may be low or High Gain. Gain is the reciprocal of CR Ratio.

Factors influencing Design of Controls

Resistance in Controls: Represents the Feel or feedback associated to the resistance of the control. Operator manipulates while he operating control knob by knowing the amount of displacement required on the control and the amount of force to be applied to bring about this displacement. Resistance of control acts as a feedback to operator.

Some controls require only force or only displacement.

Factors influencing Design of Controls

Deadspace and Backlash: Deadspace :

Amount of control movement around the null position that results in no movement in the devise being controlled. Inevitable that Deadspace exists in Mechanical control systems.
Reduces sensitivity & effects performance.

Factors influencing Design of Controls

Backlash:
Movement of control device if regulated by a second part. Small initial movement by the second part may not initiate a response called the backlash. Eg. : Gear Meshing

Design of certain Control Devices:

1. Cranks & Hand wheels: Frequently used for applying force to control an equipment. Ketchmer (1957) study on Cranks & Handwheels: Optimum combinations of different diameter would have different torque conveying capacity increase in diameter increases capacity. Optimum work level
occurred for moderate torque level of 30 50 lb-in using 5 & 7 wheels, while no effect on 4 wheel.

Time of operation: Larger the radius longer the persons were able to rotate & continue except higher torque levels optimum torque for max time was
10 lb-in

Design of certain Control Devices:

1. Cranks & Hand wheels:

Cranks were adjusted to waist height & rotate at a rapid rate till they no longer could continue or 10 min whichever was earlier.

Design of certain Control Devices:

2. Pedal or Foot Control: (Ayoub, 1967) Constant angle: Foot pedal to be moved through 120 no matter where the fulcrum was located. It was found that the closer the fulcrum to the heel, farther the back of the foot must travel to achieve a 120 arc. Constant distance: Foot pedal to be operated by moving through a distance of 1.9 cm.

It was found that the closer the fulcrum to the heel, smaller the arc to achieve the activation distance.

Design of certain Control Devices:

2. Pedal or Foot Control:

Optimum location of fulcrum:

Constant Angle 1/3 rd from toe to back of foot. Constant Distance At the heel.

Design of certain Control Devices:

3. Key Board Design:
Since Keyboards are sequential, the key positions are aptly designed for better speed of operation. Conventional arrangement: QWERTY keyboard Redesigned : DVORAK simplified keyboard

QWERTY known to be slower (for mechanically operated typewriter) - to reduce pace - thus reducing of error in typing / keys jamming against one another. DVORAK superior in speed (10-20 % increase) and reduction in hand & finger fatigue.
Question: is this speed required / justified? Maybe, not.

Key Board Design contd.

Computer keyboards are designed to switch into DVORAK set up from QWERTY. The keycaps are normally are in QWERTY arrangement. Dual arrangement may be preferable to many.

Conventionally, QWERTY remains a standard arrangement because of its familiarity with people.