HUMAN FACTORS IN ENGINEERING & DESIGN

Chapter II: Topics:

INFORMATION INPUT

Information Input & Processing Visual Displays Auditory Displays

INFORMATION INPUT & PROCESSING Sources & pathways of stimuli: Human being is bombarded with all sorts of stimuli from outside environment & within the human body the input is received as stimuli & processed by the brain Not all stimuli received can be sensed can sense only those within spectra of sensitivity. Sources could be from distant or close light, sound, thermal, mechanical, chemical.

Sources & pathways of stimuli:

Sensory channels or Pathways: Exteroceptors: Vision, Audio, Smell, Taste & Touch receptors of stimuli generated external to the body. Ability to see & hear etc. Proprioceptors: Receptors of stimuli generated within the body embedded within the internal tissues muscles, tendons around joints, inner ear etc Ability to reach out, making a sudden turn etc.

Sources & pathways of stimuli:

External stimuli within the range of human sensitivity excites the appropriate exteroceptor on a selective basis light excites visual channel. External stimuli provides data that are sensed by the human receptors Human attaches a meaning to what is sensed called Perception Sensing of stimuli Data; Perception of stimuli sensed Information

Sources & pathways of stimuli:

Special category of Proprioceptors : Kinesthetic receptors Clustered primarily around joints Primarily to tell us where our limbs are at given point of time, to co-ordinate movement and sense forces developed by our muscles. Gives the feedback necessary for limb movement where such a sense is required in conduct skilled tasks rather than visually dependent tasks

INFORMATION THEORY Information Theory: It provides an operational definition to Information & an quantitative method of measuring it. Concept: Information results in reduction of uncertainty. The occurrence of highly certain events convey less info as they confirm what was expected. Eg: Fasten Seat Belt! indicator comes on each time the car is started, while Oil Level Low indicator is unexpected even, but, both are important.

INFORMATION THEORY

Unit of measure of Information:

Info Theory measures info in bits.

A bit of information is the amount of information required to decide between two equally likely alternatives.

INFORMATION THEORY
When the probabilities of occurrence of alternatives are equal, then,

Information, H = Log N .
2

where N is number

of alternatives. With 2 equally likely alternatives,

Information, H = Log2 2 = 1 bit. With 4 equally likely alternatives, Information, H = Log2 4 = 2 bits. A randomly chosen digit from 0 - 9 would convey, Information, H = Log2 10 = 3.322 bits. A randomly chosen alphabet from A - Z would convey, Information, H = Log2 26 = 4.7 bits.

INFORMATION THEORY
When the probabilities of occurrence of alternatives are unequal, then, Information, hi = Log2 (1/pi) where hi is the info associated with event i. pi probability of occurrence of that event i.

When Average information of series of events are to be found, Average Information,

h ave

1 i 1 p i [log 2 ] p i 1
N

INFORMATION THEORY
Max possible info is obtained when alternatives are equally likely to occur, when there is departure from equal probability the greater is the reduction in the info from the max. This is termed as Redundancy in information.

hav REDUNDANCY ( Percentage) [1 ] X 100 hmax

English language has degree of redundancy with th & qu occurring more frequently in combination than others.

INFORMATION INPUT PROCESSES

Only a small fraction of info sensed can be processed based on the Bandwidth of the communication channel. Bandwidth gives the rate of info transmission over the channel or pathway measured in bits/sec.
Pathway Normal human Ear Visual nerve fibre (Eye) Estimated bandwidth (bits/sec) 8,000 to 10,000 1,000

INFORMATION INPUT PROCESSES

But, these are higher than the human brain possibly absorb, interpret & analyze. can

Much of what is received at the peripheral senses is filtered out before it reaches the brain for obtaining a response.

Process
Sensory registration At nerve junctions Conscious level Long-Term store

Max Flow of Info Bits/Sec

1,000,000,000 3,000,000 16 0.7

INFORMATION INPUT PROCESSES After sensing, processing to take place smoothly for optimum performance. In some, the correlation between input & output is quite obvious such as read instructions & operate a simple hand tool, while in others it could be difficult to correlate remote control of a complex process.

INFORMATION INPUT PROCESSES

Reaction Time to Stimulus: Hick experiment in1952: (Choice reaction time expt) A person to make discrete & separate response to different stimuli (on Information theory) to push one of four buttons depending on which of the four color lights come on Red, Blue, Green, Yellow. Hick varied the number of stimuli in the reaction time task and found that Reaction time increased as the number of equally likely alternatives increased. Plot of Mean Reaction Time versus Number of stimuli in bits indicated a linear relationship.

INFORMATION INPUT PROCESSES

Reaction Time to Stimulus: Hyman experiment in1953: (Choice reaction time expt) Altered the stimulus information without changing the number of alternatives but changing the probability of occurrence of alternatives.

Reaction time was still a linear function of Stimulus information.

This is called the Hick-Hyman Law, which proves that information theory is applicable to Information processing.

TYPES OF INFORMATION
Human info & processing depends on Stimuli Original source of Stimuli object, event, environment condition Information may come:

Directly: Observation of event itself. Indirectly: Through intervening media radar, telescopic.
Info maybe Coded visual / auditory displays or Reproduced: Photograph, TV, Radio or microscopes, telescopes, binoculars intentionally or unintentionally magnified / modified enlarged, amplified, filtered for easier processing.

TYPES OF INFORMATION - Classification

Static: Fixed over a period of time printed or written charts, graphs, signs. Dynamic: Changes with time continuously radar, Speedometer, temperature gauges. Also classified as: Quantitative: Values of variables indicated - speed Qualitative: Trend, direction, value of change. Status Information: Displays status ON or OFF Warning & Signal Info: Gives emergency & unsafe conditions static or dynamic signboard or siren

TYPES OF INFORMATION Classification Contd.

Representational Info: Pictorial or Graphic representation of area or object maps, charts, blueprints. Identification Info: To identify some static condition situation or object Color-coded pipes, traffic signals. Alpha-Numeric & Symbolic Info: Presentation of verbal, numeric or related coded info Signs,
Placards, Braille, music notes.

Time-Phased Info: Presentation of pulsed or timephased signals Morse codes, Blinker lights of direct dialing Tele billing equipment.

STAGES OF INFO PROCESSING

(Working of the Sensorimotor)
Attention Resources or Motivation

STIMULI Short Term Sensory Store Perception Decision & Response Selection Response Execution

RESPONSE

Working Memory Long-Term Memory MEMORY FEEDBACK

Working of the Sensorimotor

Short-Term Sensory Store / Memory:
Temporary memory channel erases or fades away after short period after stimuli has ceased. Helps in perceiving stimuli. It holds the data in as is condition without coding & hence cannot go into the working memory. Types: Iconic storage: Associated with visual system (about a sec) Echoic storage: Associated with auditory system (a few sec)

Working of the Sensorimotor

Working Memory: Encodes & transfers info from sensory storage to working memory Requires direct attention to the process. Coded in 3 ways: Visual: Visual representation of stimuli. Phonetic: Auditory representation of stimuli. Semantic: Abstract representation of stimuli. Picturize the object by hearing the sound or code the sound from the visual representation of the object. Phonetically coding of sound generated from word DOG.

Working Memory:

Stimulus
Sensory

Codes
Working Memory LT Memory

Auditory Visual

Echoic Iconic

Phonetic

Semantic
Visual

Semantic (abstract) coding helps optimal LT term storage.

Working Memory Capacity limited and decays if not properly coded. For better retention, the items are clubbed to form chunks. Max number of items that can be held in working memory 7 2 chunks ( 5 or 9 chunks). E.g.: A string of items in 9 chunks a.t.o.g.t.a.c.r.d can be
better retained as cat,dog,rat with 3 chunks. Rules: Avoid presenting more than 9 chunks. Present in meaningful & distinct chunks. Provide training on how to recall info.

Long Term Memory Info from working memory is transferred to LT Memory by Semantically coding it. Supplying meaning to info & relate to info already present in LT Memory. Working memory info is analyzed, compared & related to past knowledge & stored into LT memory to make retrieval easy Mnemonics makes retrieval easy. It involves picking up first letter of a item and frame words/sentence to make it meaningful. This can be recalled more easily.

Perception
Short term sensory store helps perception stimuli sensed & carried to central mechanism to be processed Depends on past experience, training, background & conditioning. Process is flexible human being an info transmitter or sometimes a info processor (Eg. Typist copying document)

Choice of Response
Decision on choice of response is dependent on working memory & also effected by individual biases. Ones experience, expectations, previous processing steps etc may lead to a decision to select a response. Response could be manipulative, conversation, gross body movements (running) etc. Response is enhanced by attention resource/motivation at all levels of processing. Attention could be divided, focused, selective or sustained. Feedback helps effective response & improve performance.

Parameters effecting Performance

Frequency of signals increase the better Strength of signals stronger the better Discriminate signals from non-signals Periodic feedbacks to operator

Biases in Decision Making

Undue importance to early info or evidence. Human generally conservative. Do not extract as much info as they optimally should. As more info is gathered, people become more confident and finally overconfidence and wrong decisions. Humans have limited ability concepts/hypothesis at a time. to analyze many

People treat all info to be equally reliable even though they are not.

Attention Resources
Task of paying attention is directed to objects or activities so that they can be perceived and recalled. Depending upon situation, Attention is:

Selective Attention:
A pilot looking for a deviant reading as he scans the instruments. Ability to detect a deviate signal in 5 different dials or in 1 dial, with signals rate of 25 per minute. 1 dial better than 5 as it reduces Load Stress Rate of signal presented brings in Speed Stress

Attention Resources
Focused Attention: Maintaining attention one or few channels of info and not be distracted by other channels of info. Proximity to source one visual source of info and completely ignore another if the two are within 1 degree of visual angle from each other. In auditory the proximity could be the wavelength to be maintained as distinct for better performance.

Attention Resources
Divided Attention: (Time-sharing) When people are required to do more than one task at a time, performance on at least one of the tasks often declines. Humans have limited capacity to process info when several tasks are performed simultaneously, this capacity can be exceeded. Sustained Attention: The ability to maintain attention and remain alert to stimuli over prolonged periods of time. Gained importance where humans assume role of system monitor where he has to observe dials, screens for critical signals that may demand action.

VISUAL DISPLAYS
The process of seeing When to use visual displays Quantitative & Qualitative displays Basic designs of visual displays Guidelines to visual displays

The Process of Seeing

We depend on vision to gather information about the state of environment outside static or dynamic. The capacity is limited. Light is visually evaluated radiant energy a small spectrum of this energy is visible to human eye. About 80 % of info acquired by humans is through the visual channel.

Human Eye - features

Eye globe is of about 2.5 cms diameter. Six muscles attached to eyeball through ligaments enables eyeball move left-right, roll-in roll-out. Visible light rays pass through an transparent covering in front called Cornea into the anterior chamber. It is then focused with a lens on a photo sensitive area. Anterior chamber has fluid - Aqueous Humor, with optical properties to bend the rays. Inner chamber has fluid Vitreous Humor, thicker in density but same optical property. Two chambers inside eyeball separated by the Iris and the lens.

Human Eye - features

Pupil is an variable aperture within the Iris. Pupil gets larger in darker surroundings and smaller in brighter conditions to admit adequate light rays into the eye. Together with the vitreous humor and the adjustable lens the light is brought to a focus on the Retina. Retina is an outgrowth of the brain. Retina contains Nervous tissues called Neurons. Neurons make up most of the Retina and is composed of Photoreceptors called Rods and Cones. Cones respond to light levels equivalent to light falling on a white paper 30 cm (1 feet) away from a standard candle and above. This is termed as daylight vision (Photopic Vision)

Human Eye - features

Rods are receptors for low illumination or Scotopic Vision. They respond to lower illumination levels equivalent to light impinging on earth on full moon night or below. Combination of cones and rods are used during inbetween levels of illumination (Mesopic Vision). Retina has 2 distinct regions Fovea and Optic Disk. Fovea is a shallow pit rich in cones, centered within the yellow spot. Hence, has the maximum visual acuity sharpness.

Human Eye - features

Rods concentration peaks +/- 20 degrees off the Fovea. For best vision during lower illumination one has to look about 20 degrees off the intended target to get the most of it. Optic Disk is the exit point from Retina that make the Optic nerve. This disk is free of receptors and is effectively blind, hence called the Blind Spot. Sclera, tough outer tissue protects eye structure. The tissue layer called Choroids Membrane, between the Retina & Sclera, is dark in color to absorb light not taken up by the Retina.

Human Eye - features

The curvature of Lens is controlled by the Ciliary Muscles together with Suspensory ligaments. Relaxation of muscles thickens the lens to bring the nearby objects within the focus of the Retina. Contraction of muscles flattens the lens to bring the far off objects within the focus of the Retina. The altering of lens for proper focusing is called Accommodation. Image on the Retina is inverted & reversed. Inverted image signals are taken by nervous system to the brain. The brain interprets image as reverse as what is received, thus giving the correct picture.

Human Eye & the Camera

Differences: 1. Eye lens is in fixed position & need not move back & forth to focus, unlike a camera. Hence, faster than camera. 2. Human film sensitivity is varied & capable of capturing image at variety of illumination, while a camera film has a specific illumination necessary. 3. Eye can see in 3 dimension while a camera in 2 dimensions.

Visual Capabilities
1. Accommodation: Ability of lens to focus on to the retina. Helps read details of object. Accommodation between Near & Far point. In normal vision, Far Point is at infinity (20 & more). Far Point is the distance beyond which the eye cannot clearly focus. Near Point is the closet distance to which the eye can focus . Depends on human age as aging occurs the distance increases.

Accommodation Contd.

Accommodation Contd. The focal points & Distances are expressed in Diopters, D = 1/object distance, in metres. The lens is specified in Diopters. Higher the Diopter, more powerful the lens and its ability to bend the light rays. Accommodation capacity inadequate leads to Nearsightedness Image focused in front of the retina
External lens concave

Farsightedness Image focused beyond the retina

External lens convex.

Visual Capabilities
2. Convergence: Act of aiming both eyes at the same point. Average time required to aim the eyes & focus them to a new point displaced in a distance is about 165 Milliseconds. In case reading it, average time 200 milliseconds at same distance, while at 20 feet & more it is lesser.

Visual Capabilities
3. Saccadic Eye Movement: Co-ordinated motion of both eyes together. A movement of over a space of 5 letters in ordinary print at a space of 1 feet is about 15 20 M Sec. converted to angle 20 degrees of eye movement corresponds to 4 inchs at a distance of 1 feet.

Visual Capabilities
Saccadic Eye Movement: Rate of increase of eye movement increases with angle & then reduces after certain angle.
Extent of movement (Degrees) Duration of movement (M.Sec)

10 20 30 40

40 55 80 100 15 25 20

Visual Capabilities
4. Color Discrimination: Cones receive rays with higher illumination are of 3 types whose wavelengths correspond to the primary colors red, blue & green. Darker conditions no color observed as cones do not operate. Trichromats - Normal color vision Monochromats - Color blind Dichromats - Red or Blue cone deficient (8% Males 0.5% Females) Red deficient cannot distinguish between shades of Red & Orange Blue deficient cannot distinguish between shades of Blue & Yellow Red deficient perform worser than blue deficient ones.

Visual Capabilities
5. Visual Acuity: (Resolving Power of eye) Ability to discriminate fine details. It is minimum separable distance. Smallest feature that the eye can measure. Depends largely on accommodation of the eyes. Also depends on:
The object itself Distribution of radiant energy Illumination of the background Contract between object & background Duration of visual stimulus

Acuity better under Photopic light than Scotopic light conditions.

Visual Capabilities
5. Visual Acuity: (Resolving Power of eye) Acuity is the inverse of the visual angle subtended at the eye by the smallest detail that can be subtended.

If a person can discriminate a detail that subtends an arc of 1.5 minutes, the Acuity Score is 0.67 (1/1.5).
A person with better acuity has a score higher than 0.67.

Visual Capabilities
Visual Acuity: (Contd.)

In industrial environment, the visual Acuity is checked every 2 years inspection sections etc. Tests for Acuity include Letter targets, Checkerboards, Gratings etc.

Visual Capabilities
6. Depth Perception: Special form visual acuity is the ability to see depth. Two eyes enables seeing at different angles. Ability to see depth for distant objects is less compared to near objects.

Eg. Crane operators require good depth perception.

Visual Capabilities
6. Purkinje Shift:
Eye sensitive at different wavelengths of light. Sensitivity of vision depends on the wavelength for Scotopic & Photopic intensity. The light-adapted eye (Photopic) is maximally sensitive to light with a wavelength of 555 nm. (1 nm = 10-9 m) Color: Greenish Yellow The dark-adapted eye (Scotopic) is maximally sensitive to light with a wavelength of 505 nm. Color: Yellowish Green The shift from 555 to 505 nm is Purkinje Shift.

Visual Capabilities
6. Purkinje Shift (Contd.):

Visual Capabilities
7. Optical Illusion: Optical illusions from perceptions of visual stimuli generate errors need to minimize such errors while designing visual displays.

Optical Illusion

VISUAL DISPLAYS
Keeping in view of the visual capabilities the visual displays are designed in terms of texts, graphics, symbols & codes static or dynamic. Displays to be made so that all info is understandable. Requires the displays to be readable, & signals detectable.

VISUAL DISPLAYS
Visual displays classified as:

Quantitative displays Qualitative displays Check Readings Situation Awareness (Representational)

VISUAL DISPLAYS
Quantitative displays:
Provides info about value of some variable. Basic designs are: 1. Fixed scale with moving pointer 2. Moving scale with fixed pointer 3. Digital displays Analog indicators conventionally have mechanical moving parts, while modern technology makes it possible for electronically generated features eliminating need for moving mechanical components.

1. Fixed scale with moving pointer:

Digital Displays (Counters)

Superior to analog displays Applicable when:
Precise numeric value is required. Values presented remain visible long enough & not changing continuously.

Counters may be mechanically operated or electronically generated signals.

2 4 5 26 9 3 5

Guidelines:

Selection of analog displays

Pointer moving against Fixed scale is preferred. Natural interpretation of events to be addressed ; Eg. Thermometer. Not advisable to mix types of pointer scale indicators to avoid reversal errors in reading. Small variations better indicated in Moving Pointer fixed scale. For large range of values moving scale & fixed pointer is preferred.

Scale patterns implying Good & Bad designs

Qualitative Displays
User interested in approximate value of continuously changing variable. Rate of change, know the trend.

Quantitative data may be used as a basis for qualitative reading in 3 ways:

Determine status or condition (Temp) Maintain desirable range (Speed) Observe rate of change or trend (Altitude)

Comparison of types of scales

Type Average Reading Time, milliseconds Qualitative 115 107 101 Quantitative 102 113 118

Open-Window Circular Vertical

Vertical scale best for Qualitative reading Open-window with shortest time for Quantitative digital displays Circular windows best for Qualitative digital displays

Design of Qualitative Scales:

Users can be made to perceive qualitative displays using: Color Coding Shapes Coding

Qualitative Scales
Color Coding

Qualitative Scales
Shapes Coding: Shape coding immediately conveys meaning. Experimentation on Aircraft instrument readings on number of designs to 140 military cadets to analyze.

Experimentation on Aircraft instrument

Qualitative Displays
3. Check Readings: Use of instrument to ascertain whether reading is normal or not. Normal reading pointer aligned at 3 or 12 Oclock position

Qualitative Displays
4. Situation Awareness (Representational)

AUDITORY DISPLAYS
Sound vibrations received by sense organ ear. Sound created by any source. Attributes of sound are Frequency & Amplitude (intensity). With atmosphere to be source of vibrations,
Higher Sinusoidal wave by simple sound generating source Lower

Normal Air Pressure

0 Time

Changes in air molecules Denser Rarer

AUDITORY DISPLAYS
Features of the sine wave: Waveform above mirror image of waveform below midline. Wave form pattern repeats itself in cycles. Frequency is number of cycles per second , in Hertz. Human ear sensitive to frequencies in the range 20 20000 Hz, though not equally sensitive. Pitch is the highness or lowness in tone. When frequency lowers pitch/tone to be lowered.

Effect of frequency on perception

When changed in intensity, the following occurs:

Frequency
Less than 1000 Hz More than 3000 Hz Between 1000 -3000 Hz

Perception
Low frequency & high Pitch High frequency & low Pitch Stable, even if low Pitch

Intensity of sound
Intensity or Loudness is power per unit area. Watts/m2. As range of power values for common sounds are high, it is convenient to use log scale. The ratio of two sound pressures in decibel is frequently used: Sound Pressure Level, dB = 20 log(P1/Po)
Where P1 Sound pressure to be measured
Po Reference Sound pressure

Intensity of sound
Sound Pressure Level, dB = 20 log10 (P1/Po)
Where P1 Sound pressure to be measured Po Reference Sound pressure

When P1 = Po, log10 1 is zero, indicates 0 dB And Po cannot be zero, as dB becomes infinity.

Complex Sound Waves Very few sounds are pure. Even musical sounds contains combination of fundamental frequencies resulting in a complex or composite waveform.
Individual sine waves

Complex sine waves (sum of sine waves)

The Human Ear Anatomically ear has 3 divisions: Outer Ear, Middle Ear & Inner Ear The Outer Ear:
Pinna the external part Auditory canal bayonet shaped tube 1 long & Ear drum or Tympanic membrane ( at the end of canal). Function: Collects sound energy

The Human Ear

Middle Ear:
Ossicles the 3bone structure Transmits vibrations from the ear drum to the oval window of the inner ear through Stapes a piston form. Can amplify sound waves up to 22 times Muscles on Ossicles provide for time delay in case of intense noise before muscles contract & transmit vibrations (Gun Shot).

The Human Ear

Inner Ear:
Spiral shaped, 30 mm when uncoiled & filled with fluid 5-6 mm at the oval window end Stapes acts as piston pressurizes the fluid in the oval window driving it back and forth, in response to change in pressures at the ear drum Basilar Membrane within the inner ear vibrates due to change in fluid pressure Corti which has Auditory Nerve Cells pick up the vibrations of the basilar membrane and transmit the signals to the brain through the Auditory Nerve.

The Human Ear

When Auditory Displays used ?

Origin of signal itself a sound Visual system is over burdened Speech channel is fully employed Illumination limits use of visual displays Receiver moves from one place to another A verbal response is required Message is short & simple will be not referred to later deals with events in time calls for immediate action continuously changing

Auditory displays not to be used, when:

Noise levels exceed or are very near the discomfort levels Too many audio signals are being received Noise from equipments etc are similar to planned auditory display Too many auditory signal types tends to confuse the listener & he may orient himself to one and ignore the others.

Human functions in Reception of Auditory signals Detection: To determine whether a given signal is present Relative discrimination: Differentiating 2 or more signals presented close together. JustNoticeable Differences (JND 60 dB above absolute threshold) Absolute Identification: Identify a particular signal Localization: Determine the direction from which the emanates from.

Sound Level
120 110 Sound Pressure Level (SPL) dB Level above which pain is felt Thunder Riveting Risk of damage Level not acceptable

90
80

Train (External) Pneumatic Drill / Heavy Traffic / Car

60 40 20

Conversation In Quiet Room (JND) Whisper

Threshold Hearing Barely audible sound

Types of Auditory Displays:

Range of Auditory displays: Speech Signals Single word warnings FIRE ! Standard messages YOU ARE IN QUEUE Extemporaneous message WIND SW - 10 Knots

Types of Auditory Displays:

Range of Auditory displays Non Speech Signals: Bell, Buzzer, Horn, Siren, Tone &Electronic (Sonar & Echo)

Types of Auditory Displays:

Displays maybe: Direct : Person to Person ( Air conduction) Indirect : Loud speaker or Ear phone Presented to one or both ears If Ear phone is used one signal to each ear or mix signals alternately Just Noticeable Difference (JND) is the smallest change or difference along a stimulus that can just be detected 50 % of the time by people

Special Purpose Auditory Displays:

Warning & Alarm Signals: To have unique features to invoke quick response. Signals to be in mid range of 500 3000 Hz frequency as ear is most sensitive in this range. When signal are to travel far (>1000 feet), use lower frequencies (<1000 Hz) Use different modulated / mixed signals (1 to 8 beeps/sec) as they differ from normal sounds to avoid masking Use separate communication system for warnings (Load speakers, horns etc) Provide separate emergency power source (standby) Warning signals to be at least 10 dB above the ambient noise level

Warning & Alarm Signals (Contd.):

Eight different warning signals tested for reaction time in different environments and it results are as under:
Frequency was slowly from 400 to 925 Hz

Least Effective : Wail

Most effective: Yeow & Beep

12 Easily Discriminating Warning Signals

Types of Auditory Equipments:

When helmets are used then equipment to be designed without disturbing the position of helmet (Dought-nut type cushion)

Principles of Auditory Displays:

Compatibility: Selection of signal encoding, frequency with the need. (Beep with emergency) Dissociatibility: To be easily differentiated from other audio signal (background) Parsimony: Operator not to be information more than necessary provided

Invariance: Same signal to designate the same information at all times

Principles of Presentation:
Avoid extreme of auditory dimensions can startle / disrupt performance Intensity be relative to ambient noise level Use interrupted or variable signals avoid steady state or continuous signal Do not over load auditory channel can confuse the operator ( 60 signal types used in nuclear crisis