WORKING CAPITAL

MANAGEMENT
 Working Capital
 WCM is concerned with all aspects of
managing current Assets and
liabilities
 Appropriate level of investments in
current assets
 Appropriate mix of spontaneous,
Long Term and short term of sources
of Finance
Working capital management (WCM) is also known as short term
financial management and is mainly concerned with the decisions
relating to current assets and current liabilities.

It is concerned with the problems that arise in attempting to

manage the current assets, the current liabilities and the
interrelationship that exist between them.

Thus WCM answers following questions –

- what should be the level of current assets?

- what should be the level of current liabilities?
- what should be the level of individual current assets and
individual current liabilities?
- what should be the total investment in working capital of
the firm?
There are two concepts of working capital :

i) Gross working capital – refers to the firm’s investments in all the

current assets taken together. Thus it
total of investments in all the current
assets. Also called as total working capital

ii) Net working capital – it refers to the excess of total current

assets over current liabilities.

Current assets and current liabilities are –

Current Assets Current Liabilities

Inventories – r/m, wip, fg, others Sundry creditors
Trade debtors Trade advances
Loans and advances Borrowings (short term)
Cash and bank balances Provisions
The net working capital may be positive or negative.

The net working capital measures the liquidity of the firm. The
greater the margin the better liquidity will be.

Characteristics of Current Assets :

In management of working capital, two characteristics of current

assets must be considered –

i) short life span – normally it is less than one year.

ii) swift transformation into other asset forms – each current asset
is swiftly transformed into other assets, like –
cash is used for acquiring raw materials, r/m is
transformed into finished goods, finished goods
generally sold on credit thus converted into a/r,
and finally a/r, on realisation, generates cash.
Thus current asset cycle may be shown as -

Finished
goods
Accounts Work in
receivable process

Wages, salaries,
factory, overheads
Raw
materials

Cash Suppliers
Factors Influencing Working Capital Requirement :

Different factors which will affect the working capital requirement

of a firm, are –

i) Nature of Business – for service / trading firm, lower to modest

working capital is required; while for
manufacturing concern, substantial WC is
required.

ii) Seasonality of operations – firms which have marked

seasonality in their operations usually
have high fluctuations in working
capital requirement.

iii) Production policy – adequate production policy may reduce the

sharp fluctuations in WC requirement, even
in seasonal firms.
iv) Market conditions – degree of competition in market place has
a strong influence on WC requirement. If
competition is strong, higher amount of WC
required, otherwise if competition is weak
low level of WC will suffice.

v) Supply conditions – if supply of raw materials, spares, other

goods, is prompt, adequate and predictable,
the firm can manage with small inventory
(or working capital).

Level of Current Assets :

Determining the optimal level of current assets involves a trade-off

between costs that rise with current assets (carrying costs) and
the costs that fall with current assets (shortage costs).
Carrying costs are mainly in the nature of the cost of financing
higher level of current assets, and shortage costs are mainly in the
form of disruption in production schedule, loss of sales, loss of
customer goodwill etc.

These two costs will determine the total costs, and the level of
current assets at which total cost is minimum, will be the optimal
level of current asset. It is shown as -

Carrying cost
and shortage
cost

Total cost
Carrying cost

Shortage cost
CA* Level of CA
Generally, the total cost curve is fairly flat around the optimal level
hence, it may be difficult to precisely identify the optimal level.

Working Capital Policy :

The working capital management need not necessarily have a

target of increasing the wealth of the shareholders, but it helps in
attaining the objective by providing sufficient liquidity to the firm.

Thus, efficient WCM is important from the point of view of both the
liquidity and profitability. Poor and inefficient WCM means that
funds are unnecessarily tied up in idle assets.

Keeping these views in mind, working capital policy is framed.

Types of Working Capital Needs :

For any business, two kinds of working capital may be required.

It is –

i) Permanent WC – this refers to minimum amount of investment

in current assets which is required at all times
to carry out minimum level of business
operations

ii) Temporary WC – apart from PWC, the firm may also require
additional working capital in order to meet
the requirement arising out of fluctuations in
sales volume. This extra working capital
needed to support the increased volume of
sales is called as TWC.
 The difference between permanent and temporary working capital
can be shown as -

Total WC Total WC

Amt. of WC
Amt. of WC

PWC PWC
TWC
TWC

Time Time

Normally the permanent working capital is increasing with time in

of growing concern. Thus PWC line I not horizontal with base line.
This is shown in second graph.
Current Assets Financing Policy :

After establishing the level of current assets, the firm must

determine how these should be financed. What mix of short term
and long term debt should the firm employ to support its current
assets.

Working capital can be financed by different source like – long

term sources, short term sources or transactionary sources (like
credit allowances, outstanding labour and other expenses).

In general, the short term assets should be financed through

short term funds and long term assets through long term funds.

As far as financing of working capital is concerned it depends on

the policy of the firm that what sources (and mix) of finance the
firm want to use.
Several strategies are available to a firm for financing its working
capital requirement. Four strategies are illustrated here by lines
A, B, C and D; as -
Fluctuating CA A
requirement
B
Capital requirement

C
D

Permanent CA
requirement

Fixed asset
requirement

Time
Strategy A / Conservative Approach :

Long term financing is used to meet fixed asset requirement as

well as peak working capital requirement.

In case the WC requirement is less than the peak value, the

surplus will be invested in liquid assets like cash and marketable
securities.

Here the firm do not want to take any risk. Larger the portion of
long term sources used to finance the working capital, more
conservative the firm will be.

Strategy B / Moderate Approach :

Long term financing is used to meet fixed asset requirements,

permanent WC requirement an a portion of fluctuating WC.
During seasonal upswings, short term financing is used; during
seasonal downswing, surplus is invested in liquid assets.

Strategy C / Hedging Approach / Matching Approach :

According to this approach, the maturity of sources of financing

should match the maturity of assets being financed.

Thus, long-term financing is used to meet fixed asset requirement

and permanent working capital requirement. Short-term financing
is used to meet fluctuating WC requirement.

Strategy D / Aggressive Approach :

Long term financing is used to meet fixed asset requirement and

a part of Permanent WC requirement. Rest of the part of PWC
and all fluctuating WC will be financed by short term financing.
This policy seeks to minimize excess liquidity while meeting
short term requirement.

The firm may accept even greater risk of insolvency in order to

save cost of long term financing.

Hedging Approach (HA) Vs Conservative Approach (CA) :

These are the two most discussed approaches in WCM.

Hedging Approach
Advantages 1. Cost of financing is
reduced.
2. The investment in NWC
is min.
Disadvantages 1. Frequent efforts are
required to arrange funds.
2. The risk is high as the
firm is vulnerable to shock
Conservative Approach
1. Less risky and firm is able
to bear shocks.
2. The firm does not face
frequent financing problems.
1. The cost of financing is
definitely higher.
2. Large investment is blocked
in temporary WC.
Thus the hedging approach suggest a low cost-high risk situation
while the conservative approach attempts high cost-low risk
situation.

Neither the conservative approach nor the hedging approach is

used by the firm in the strict sense.

It depends between trade-off between the hedging and

conservative approaches as well as the company policy and
finance manager’s attitude towards risk and return.

Risk-Return Trade-off :

The discussion regarding the financing pattern of current assets

point out a conflict between the short-term and long-term sources
of finance.
This conflict arises because of two reasons, i.e., different cost of
financing and different risk associated with them.

A finance manager should therefore, strive for a trade-off between

the risk and return associated with the financing mix.

Such risk-return trade-off is shown as -

HA
Profit

Trade-off
CA

Risk
Operating Cycle and Cash Cycle :

Investment in WC is influenced by four major events in production

and sales cycle of the firm. They are :

- purchase of raw materials

- payment for raw materials
- sale of finished goods
- collection of cash for sales

This is shown as -
Order Stock Sale of Cash
placed arrives finished goods received

Inventory period Accounts receivable

period

Accounts
payable period

Firm receives Cash paid

invoice for materials

Operating cycle

Cash cycle
The time elapses between the purchase of raw materials and the
collection for sale is referred to as the operating cycle, whereas
the time length between the payment for raw material purchases
and the collection of cash for sales is referred to as the cash cycle.

The operating cycle is the sum of the inventory period and the
account receivable period, whereas the cash cycle is equal to the
operating cycle less the account payable period.

It is shown as –

OC = IP + ARP

CC = OC - APP
 From the financial statement of the firm we can calculate
different periods, as -

Average inventory
Inventory period =
Annual cost of goods sold / 365
Average accounts receivable
Accounts receivable period =
Annual sales / 365
Average accounts payable
Accounts payable period =
Annual cost of goods sold / 365

To analyse the operating efficiency of the firm, both operating

cycle and its individual component is analysed on the basis of
either time-series analysis or cross-section analysis.
Computation of Working Capital
(Total Cost / Operating Cycle Approach)

Step1. Estimate different items of CA and CL

Step2. Add cash requirement, if any, in CA

Step3. Deduct CL from CA to get net working capital (NWC)

Step4. Add safety margin, if any, to get required NWC

Estimation of Current Assets :

14. Raw material inventory

= Budgeted × Cost of r/m × Av inventory holding

.Production (in units) per unit period (m/d/w) .

12 months / 365 days / 52 weeks

1. Work-in-process inventory

= Budgeted × Estimated WIP × Av inventory holding

Production (in units) cost per unit
. period (m/d/w) .

12 months / 365 days / 52 weeks

3. Finished goods inventory

= Budgeted × Cost of goods × F G holding

Production (in units) produced per unit period (m/d/w)
. (excluding Depr) .

12 months / 365 days / 52 weeks

4. Debtors

= Budgeted credit × Cost of sales × Av debt collection

sales (in units) per unit period (m/d/w)
. (excluding Depr) .

12 months / 365 days / 52 weeks

5. Cash and bank balances

This will be added in current assets.

Estimation of Current Liabilities :

8. Trade creditors

= Budgeted yearly × r/m requirement × Credit period allowed

Production (in units) per unit by creditors (m/d/w)
. .

12 months / 365 days / 52 weeks

2. Direct wages

= Budgeted yearly × direct labor × Av time lag in payment

Production (in units) cost per unit of wages (m/d/w)
. .

12 months / 365 days / 52 weeks

3. Overheads (Other than Depreciation and Amortisation)

= Budgeted yearly × overhead × Av time lag in payment of

Production (in units) cost per unit overheads (m/d/w)
. .

12 months / 365 days / 52 weeks

Format of Determination of Working Capital :

• Estimation of Current Assets Amounts

a) Inventories
Raw materials
Work-in-process
Finished goods
b) Debtors
c) Minimum desired cash and bank balances
Total Current Assets

(XII) Estimation of Current Liabilities

a) Creditors
b) Wages
c) Overheads
Total Current Liabilities
• Net Working Capital ( I – II )
Add margin money

(IV) Required Net Working Capital

 Gross Concept
 It refers to Current Assets
 Cash

 Marketable Securities

 Inventories of Raw Material

 Work in Progress

 Finished Goods

 Receivable
 Net Concept
 WCrefers difference Current Assets
& Current Liabilities
 Working Capital Management
 Cash Flow Forecasting
 Money Market
 Bank Finance
 Non-Bank Finance
 Receivable Management
 Cash Management
 Inventory Management
 Payable Management
 Working Capital
 Fuel Expenses
– Coal Cost : 60 Days
– Fuel Cost : 60 Days
 O&M Charges : 30 Days
 Spares : 1% Per
year
 Receivable : 60 Days
 WCM : 25% of WC
 Fuel Consumption
 Coal
: 7290 Tonnes/ Day in Typical
500 MW Unit

 Fuel
Oil: 19.20 K. Ltr/ Day in Typical
500 MW Unit
THANK YOU !