Chapter 4

Perceptions, Attributions, and Emotions

McGraw-Hill/Irwin

Copyright 2011 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Learning Objectives

Explain how primary emotions can be observed or determined Discuss the potential problems one faces when using stereotypes to make judgments Describe the role perception plays in organizing stimuli Explain why and where impression management tactics are used Discuss why emotional intelligence has potential for managerial use, but should be treated cautiously

Describe how attribution can be used in evaluating individual and group performance
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The Perceptual Process

Perception

Attribution

Emotion

These are not concepts a manager can directly access or fix in others

Managers should know how these factors impact ones view of the work environment
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Perception

Perception is based on prior experience

It is the cognitive process by which one selects, organizes, and gives meaning to environmental stimuli Each person gives his or her own meaning to stimuli, so each perceives things differently
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Perception

We are bombarded by environmental stimuli

Which stimuli you focus on is determined by what you choose to pay attention to Generally, people perceive stimuli that satisfy needs, emotions, attitudes, or self-concept

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The Perceptual Process

Environment Stimuli
Manager style Technology Noise Peers

Organizing, Translating, Selection

Observation

Response
Attitudes Feelings Motivation

Selection Intensity Size Impatience

Translation Stereotyping Self-concept Emotions

Sight Learning

Reward system
Compensation Career opportunities

Taste
Smell

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The Perceptual Process

Misinterpreting stimuli can result in perceptual errors

Similar-to-me errors

Snap impressions
Symbols

Each person selects cues that influence the perception of

Objects People

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The Perception Gap

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Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

Someones expectations about another causes the individual to behave in a manner consistent with those expectations Pygmalion effect Golem effect The positive case The negative case

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The Pygmalion and Golem Effect

Expectations Positive

Support Given Positive

Experience More

Performance More

Negative

Negative

Less

Less

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Perceptual Grouping

Nearness
Similarity Closure Figure and Ground

Stimuli are near each other

Stimuli are similar in size, color, shape, or form Completing a figure so it has a consistent overall form Grouping sensations into figures and backgrounds

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Schemas

A framework embodying descriptions of people, situations, or objects

Helps us make better sense of information Schemas are person, role, self, or event based

Managers use schemas to examine or prepare for a situation

Allows the chance to think, organize, and compare before acting

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Perceiving, Grouping, and Creating Schemas

Schema inaccuracies and distortions can result from

Stereotyping

Halo effect

Selective attention

Similar-to-me errors

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Stereotyping

A translation step in the perceptual process

Helps people deal with massive informationprocessing demands A useful, even essential, way to categorize individuals, events, or other things on the basis of limited information or observation

Stereotyping is not inherently bad or wrong

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Stereotyping and Prejudice

Prejudice

A stereotype that doesnt change when given information showing the stereotype is inaccurate Often the result of direct experiences with members of the rejected group Once formed, positive experiences with the persons, group, or unit usually do not reverse the prejudice Extreme form is scapegoating

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Two Sources of Prejudice

Personal
Something, or someone, is perceived as a threat to ones own interest

Group Occurs when a person conforms to the norms of a group to which he or she belongs

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Stereotyping and Prejudice

Negative Consequences of Stereotyping Social injustice Poor decision making Stifled innovation Under-utilization of human resources Ineffectiveness and inefficiency Holding back of talented, qualified people
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Stereotyping

Pay Attention to Your Stereotyping

Be willing to change or add information that improves the accuracy of your stereotypes

Stereotypes are frequently based on little or inaccurate information

Stereotypes rarely accurately apply to a specific individual

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Selective and Divided Attention

Selective Attention

Giving some messages priority and putting others on hold A bottleneck or narrowing of the information channel linking the senses to perception

Occurs when mental efforts are divided among tasks Some stimuli require more attention

Divided Attention

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Halo Effect

One important or noticeable characteristic biases an evaluation, perception, or impression of a person

Presuming someone is hard working because they arrive early and stay late Considering that someone with piercings is wild and unreliable

One trait or characteristic cant predict a persons performance

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Halo Effect

An individuals attractiveness can influence managerial decisions

Attractiveness increased evaluations, pay raises, and promotions for women in non-managerial positions The opposite was true for women in managerial positions

Both outcomes stem from the halo effect

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Similar-to-Me Errors

People frequently use themselves as benchmarks in perceiving others

Knowing oneself makes it easier to see others accurately

Those who accept themselves are more likely to see favorable aspects of others Choosing subordinates who are similar to ourselves may not be appropriate to the situation

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Situational Factors

Perceptual Accuracy Can be Affected by

The press of time

Attitudes of subordinates

Other situational factors

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Needs and Perceptions

Perceptions are influenced by needs and desires

People see what they want to see The hungrier people were when viewing ambiguous drawings, the more they saw them as articles of food
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Attribution Theory

Behavior is greatly influenced by our personal interpretation of reality

Therefore, perceptual processes are potent determinants of behavior

Attribution theory

Attempts to explain the why of behavior

Based on peoples attributions of the causes of events that happen to them

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The Attribution Process

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Internal and External Attributions

Distinctiveness
Does this person behave in this same manner in other situations?

Consistency
Does this person behave in this same manner at other times?

Consensus
Do other people behave in this same manner?

YES Low Distinctiveness NO High Distinctiveness

YES High Consistency NO Low Consistency

NO Low Consensus YES High Consensus

INTERNAL ATTRIBUTION

EXTERNAL ATTRIBUTION

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Attribution Theory

Behavior is examined on the basis of its Distinctiveness Consistency Consensus Degree to which one behaves similarly in different situations Degree to which one engages in the same behaviors at different times Degree to which others are engaging in the same behavior

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Attribution Theory

Systematic errors or biases can distort attributions Fundamental attribution error Under-estimating the importance of external factors and over-estimating internal factors when making attributions about the behavior of others Taking credit for successful work and denying responsibility for poor work

Self-serving bias

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Attribution Theory

Managerial implications of an attributional approach to understanding work behavior

To influence behavior, managers must understand the attributions employees make Managers must be aware that their attributions may be different from employees attributions

Managers cannot assume that their own attributions are error free

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Impression Management

The attempt to influence others perceptions of ourselves

How we talk Our overall style Office locations and furniture

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Impression Management

Impression management is interpersonal

Resources, style, and creativity are mobilized in order to create a positive impression in the presence of others

Reasons to use impression management

Allows one to convey a desired identity

After the identity is established, it allows congruence with the impression

A particular situation requires a significantly different behavior

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Impression Management Tactics

Ingratiation Impression management tactics Self-promotion

Intimidation

Supplication

Exemplification

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Impression Management

Men and women try to create impressions in different ways

Women use less aggressive behaviors Women are less likely to use impression management tactics

Generating a positive or good impression is the goal of most people

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Emotions

An emotion is a state of physiological arousal accompanied by Changes in facial expressions Posture Gestures Subjective feelings

Emotional expressions are visible or audible signs of what one is feeling

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Primary Emotions

Fear Joy Anger

Surprise

Sadness

Disgust

Anticipation

Acceptance

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Emotions

Broader emotions include

Aggression Love Awe Remorse

The mildest forms of emotion are moods, a low-intensity, long-lasting emotional state

Optimism

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Expressions

Emotional expressions are innate

Other facial expressions are learned and/or unique to a national culture

Expressions of fear, anger, happiness and sadness are universal

How often they are expressed varies

Women are more emotionally expressive than are men

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Body Language

Kinesics is the study of communication through body movement, posture, gestures, and facial expressions
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Body Language: Mimicking

The chameleon effect

Unconsciously mimicking the postures, mannerisms, and facial expressions of others If another person copies your gestures and postures, you are more likely to like them
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Facial Feedback

Emotional activity causes innately programmed changes in facial expressions

Ekman says making faces can cause emotion A study suggests that emotions influence expressions and expressions influence emotions
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Emotional Labor

Managing emotions for compensation

Enhancing, faking, or suppressing emotions It is stressful and may cause burnout

Two ways to manage emotions

Surface acting: regulating emotional expressions

Deep acting: modifying feelings in order to express a desired emotion

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Emotional Intelligence

A combination of

Self-awareness Self-control Empathy toward others Sensitivity to the feelings of others

Intelligence is a goal-directed mental activity marked by

Efficient problem solving Critical thinking Abstract reasoning

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Gardners View of Intelligence

Verbal Mathematical Multiple Intelligence Musical Intrapersonal

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Spatial

Interpersonal

Golemans Theory of Emotional Intelligence

Two brains, two minds, two kinds of intelligence rational and emotional

Balance & management of emotions determines how intelligently we act and how successful we will be
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Salovery and Mayer Theme

Proposes that emotional intelligence (EI) emphasizes four cognitive components The capacity to perceive emotion The capacity to integrate emotion in thought The capacity to manage emotion effectively

The capacity to understand emotion

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Emotional Intelligence

Even if EI is important for career success, it works in conjunction with other factors
Integrity Persistence Passion General intelligence

EI increases through middle management; decreases from middle to senior management

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The Next Generation of EI

Many question the notion of emotional intelligence, so the next generation of EI work needs to

Conceptualize EI in a manner that is concise and meaningful Develop more precise, concise EI measures Determine if there is practical value in the EI concept for managers

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