Leadership

Dr Retha Wiesner

Leadership and Management

Managers who are not Leaders

Managers who are also Leaders

Leaders who are not Managers

Views on leadership

John Kotter feels that management is about coping with complexity.

Good management brings about order and consistency by drawing up formal plans, designing rigid organisation structures, and monitoring results against the plans. Leadership is about coping with change. Leaders establish direction by developing a vision of the future; then they align people by communicating this vision and inspiring them to overcome hurdles.

Mostly defined as:

Leadership as the ability to influence a group toward the achievement of goals.

The source of this influence may be formal. A person may assume a leadership role simply because of his/her position. Not all leaders are managers, nor, for that matter, are all managers leaders. Non-sanctioned leadershipthe ability to influence that arises outside the formal structure of the organisationis often as important as or more important than formal influence. Leaders can emerge from within a group as well as by formal appointment to lead a group.

Effective Leadership

Biological factors Personality traits Behavioural styles Situational (transactional) skills Transformational ability

Trait Theories

Leadership Traits:
Ambition and energy The desire to lead

Honesty and integrity

Self-confidence

Intelligence
Job-relevant knowledge

Trait Theories of Leadership

Seek

to differentiate leaders from nonleaders by who they are Overlook needs of followers Fail to clarify trait's relative importance Don't separate cause from effect Ignore situational factors

Personality Traits of Leaders

6 Consistent Traits that differentiate effective leaders from non-effective leaders; Honesty Self -Confidence Ambition High Energy Level Task Relevance & Knowledge The Desire to Lead according to followers; Honesty &Integrity Forward Looking Inspiring Competent Fair Minded Supportive More Recently Self- Monitors - flexible in adjusting their behaviours to situations to be effective.

Behavioural Theories
behavioural theories of leadership

Theories of proposing that specific behaviours differentiate leaders from non-leaders

Trait theory: Leaders are born, not made. Behavioural theory: Leadership traits can be taught.

Ohio State Studies

consideration
The extent to which a leader is likely to have job relationships characterised by mutual trust, respect for subordinates ideas, and regards for their feelings.

University of Michigan Studies

employee-oriented leader
Emphasising interpersonal relations; taking a personal interest in the needs of employees and accepting individual difference among members.

production-oriented leader
One who emphasises technical or task aspects of the job.

Behavioral Theories of Leadership

Seek to differentiate leaders from nonleaders by what they do Still ignore situational factors

The Managerial Grid

High 9

1.9 Country Club Management Thoughtful attention to needs of people for satisfying relationships leads to a comfortable, friendly organisation atmosphere and work tempo.

9.9 Team Management Work accomplishment from committed people, interdepen- dence through a common stake in organisation purpose leads to relationships of trust and respect.

Concern for People

6

4 Low 3

5.5 Organisation Management Adequate organisation performance is possible through balancing the necessity to get out work with maintaining 9.1 morale of people at a satisfactory level. 1.1 Authority-Obedience Impoverished Management Efficiency in operations results from Exertion of minimum effort to get required arranging conditions of work in such a way work done is appropriate to sustain that human elements interfere to a organisation membership. minimum degree.

1 Low

4 5 6 Concern for Production

9 High

Leadership Behaviour Continuum

Boss-centred leadership Subordinatecentred leadership

Use of authority by the manager

Area of freedom for subordinates

Manager Manager makes sells decision decision and announces it

Manager presents ideas and invites questions

Manager presents tenative decision subject to change

Manager Manager presents defines problem, gets limits, suggestions, asks makes group to decision make decision

Manager permits subordinates to function within limits defined by superior

Transparency 11-9

Three Leadership Dimensions

Task-Development-People
Development Development of people and ideas

People Welfare and support of people

Task Completion of the task

Fiedler Contingency Model

Effective groups depend upon a proper match between a leader's style of interacting with subordinates and the degree to which the situation gives control and influence to the leader.

Features of the Theory:

Identifying Leadership Style

Leader-member relations Task Structure Position Power

Identifying leadership style:

Fiedler believed that a key factor in leadership success is the individuals basic leadership style. He created the least preferred co-worker (LPC) questionnaire for this purpose.

a. It purports to measure whether a person is task- or relationship-oriented. b. The questionnaire contains 16 contrasting adjectives (such as pleasant-unpleasant, efficient-inefficient, openguarded, supportive-hostile). c. It asks respondents to describe the one person they least enjoyed working with by rating him or her on a scale of one-to-eight for each of the 16 sets of contrasting adjectives. d. Fiedler believes that based on the respondents answers to this questionnaire, he can determine their basic leadership style.

(cont)

e. If the least preferred co-worker is described in relatively positive terms (a high LPC score), the respondent is primarily interested in good personal relations with this co-worker. f. If the least preferred co-worker is seen in relatively unfavourable terms (a low LPC score), the respondent is primarily interested in productivity and thus would be labelled taskoriented. About 16 percent of respondents cannot be classified as either.

Fiedler assumes that an individuals leadership style is fixed.

Defining the situation:

After assessing leadership style, it is necessary to match the leader with the situation. Fiedler has identified three contingency dimensions:

a. Leader-member relationsThe degree of confidence, trust, and respect members have in their leader b. Task structureThe degree to which the job assignments are procedural. c. Position powerThe degree of influence a leader has over power variables such as hiring, firing, discipline, promotions, and salary increases

The next step is to evaluate the situation in terms of these three contingency variables.

a. Leader-member relations are either good or poor. b. Task structure is either high or low. Position power is either strong or weak.

Fiedler states the better the leader-member relations, the more highly structured the job, and the stronger the position power, the more control the leader has. Altogether, by mixing the three contingency variables, there are potentially eight different situations or categories in which leaders could find themselves.

. Matching leaders and situations

The Fiedler model proposes matching them up to achieve maximum leadership effectiveness. Fiedler concluded that task-oriented leaders tend to perform better in situations that were very favourable to them and in situations that were very unfavourable.

a. Fiedler would predict that when faced with a category I, II, Ill, VII, or VIII situation, task- oriented leaders perform better. b. Relationship-oriented leaders, however, perform better in moderately favourable situationscategories IV through VI.

Fiedler has condensed these eight situations to three. Task-oriented leaders perform best in situations of high and low control, while relationship-oriented leaders perform best in moderate control situations. Given Fiedlers findings, you would seek to match leaders and situations. Because Fiedler views an individuals leadership style as being fixed, there are only two ways to improve leader effectiveness.

First, you can change the leader to fit the situation. The second alternative would be to change the situation to fit the leader.

. Evaluation:

There is considerable evidence to support at least substantial parts of the model. If predictions from the model use only three categories rather than the original eight, there is ample evidence to support Fiedlers conclusions. There are problems and the practical use of the model that need to be addressed. The logic underlying the LPC is not well understood and studies have shown that respondents LPC scores are not stable. Also, the contingency variables are complex and difficult for practitioners to assess.

Hersey and Blanchard Situational Leadership Theory

Relationship Behavior

High

Low

Task Behavior
Able and willing Able and unwilling Unable and willing Unable and unwilling

High

Low

Follower Readiness

Situation Leadership II Theory

(High) High supportive and low directive Supprtive Behaviour Style of Leader High directive and high supportive

Low supportive and low directive (Low) High

High directive and low supportive (High) Low

Directive Behaviour Moderate

D4
Transparency Master 11-13

D3 D2 Developmental Level

D1

Leader-Member Exchange Theory

a. The leader-member exchange (LMX) theory argues that because of time pressures, leaders establish a special relationship with a small group of their followers. b. These individuals make up the in-groupthey are trusted, get a disproportionate amount of the leaders attention, and are more likely to receive special privileges. c. The theory proposes that early in the history of the interaction between a leader and a given follower, the leader implicitly categorises the follower as an in or an out and that relationship is relatively stable over time.

How the leader chooses who falls into each category is unclear. (See Figure). The leader does the choosing on the basis of the followers characteristics.

The theory and research surrounding it provide substantive evidence that leaders do

Leader-Member Exchange Theory

Personal compatibility Subordinate competence Extroverted personality

Leader
Formal relations

High Interactions Trust

Subordinate
A

Subordinate
B

Subordinate
C

Subordinate
D

Subordinate
E

Subordinate
F

In Group

Out Group

Path-Goal Theory

path-goal theory
The theory that it is the leaders job to assist followers in attaining their goals and to provide the necessary direction and/or support to ensure that their goals are compatible with the overall objectives of the group or organisation.

Path-Goal (cont)

1. One of the most respected approaches to leadership is the path-goal theory developed by Robert House. 2. It is a contingency model of leadership which extracts key elements from the Ohio State leadership research on initiating structure and consideration and the expectancy theory of motivation. 3. It is the leaders job to assist followers in attaining their goals and to provide the necessary direction and/or support to ensure that their goals are compatible with the overall objectives of the firm. 4. The term path-goal is derived from the belief that effective leaders clarify the path to help their followers achieve their work goals.

House identified four leadership behaviours:

The directive leader lets followers know what is expected of them, etc. The supportive leader is friendly and shows concern for the needs of followers. The participative leader consults with followers and uses their suggestions before making a decision. The achievement-oriented leader sets challenging goals and expects followers to perform at their highest level.
In contrast to Fiedler, House assumes leaders are flexible and can display any of these behaviours.

Two classes of situational or contingency variables moderate the leadership behaviour:

Environmental or outcome relationship. These factors determine the type of leader behaviour required as a complement if follower outcomes are to be maximised. Personal characteristics of the employee. These determine how the environment and leader behaviour are interpreted.

Directive leadership leads to greater satisfaction when tasks are ambiguous or stressful than when they are highly structured and well laid out. Supportive leadership results in high employee performance and satisfaction when employees are performing structured tasks. Directive leadership is likely to be perceived as redundant among employees with high perceived ability or with considerable experience. Employees with an internal locus of control will be more satisfied with a participative style. Achievement-oriented leadership will increase employees expectancies that effort will lead to high performance when tasks are ambiguously structured. Research evidence generally supports the logic underlying the path-goal theory.

Path Goal Theory

Environmental contingency factors Task structure Formal authority system Work group

Leader behaviour Directive Supportive Participative Achievement-Oriented

Outcomes Performance Satisfaction

Subordinate contingency factors Locus of control Experience Perceived ability

Transparency 11-15

Recent Approaches to Leadership

Attribution Theory-leadership is in the eye of the follower Charismatic Leaders-followers attribute many leadership abilities to people perceived as exhibiting some leadership qualities Transactional Leaders-guide followers toward established goals Transformational leaders--provide stimulation toward new development and reinvention of the group

Charismatic Leadership
Five such characteristics: They have a vision. They are willing to take risks to achieve that vision. They are sensitive to both environmental constraints and follower needs. They exhibit behaviours that are out of the ordinarythat differentiate charismatic leaders from non-charismatic ones.

Charismatic Leadership Theory

Key characteristics of Charismatic Leaders

Self Confidence Vision Articulation of vision Strong conviction about vision Behaviour out of the ordinary

Perceived as being a change agent

Environmental sensitivity

How do charismatic leaders actually influence followers? Four-step process:

The leader first articulates an appealing vision. This vision provides a sense of continuity for followers by linking the present with a better future for the organisation. The leader then communicates high performance expectations and expresses confidence that followers can attain. The leader conveys through words and actions a new set of values and, by his or her behaviour, sets an example for followers to imitate. The charismatic leader makes self-sacrifices and engages in unconventional behaviour to demonstrate courage and convictions about the vision.

There is an increasing body of research that shows impressive correlations between charismatic leadership and high performance and satisfaction among followers.

Are Charismatic Leaders Born or Made?

Learning to become charismatic by following a three-step process:

An individual needs to develop the aura of charisma by maintaining an optimistic view; using passion as a catalyst for generating enthusiasm; and communicating with the whole body, not just with words. An individual draws others in by creating a bond that inspires others to follow. The individual brings out the potential in followers by tapping into their emotions.

Charisma appears to be most appropriate when the followers task has an ideological component or when the environment involves a high degree of stress and uncertainty

Transformational Leadership

Most of the leadership theories have concerned transactional leaders. These kinds of leaders guide or motivate their followers in the direction of established goals by clarifying role and task requirements.

Transformational leaders inspire followers to transcend their own selfinterests for the good of the organisation. They change followers awareness of issues by helping them to look at old problems in new ways; and they are able to excite, arouse, and inspire followers to put out extra effort to achieve group goals. Transformational leadership is built on top of transactional leadership it produces levels of follower effort and performance that go beyond what would occur with a transactional approach alone.

Evidence indicates that transformational leadership is more strongly correlated with lower turnover rates, higher productivity, and higher employee satisfaction.

Visionary Leadership

Visionary leadership is the ability to create and articulate a realistic, credible, attractive vision of the future for an organisation or organisational unit, that grows out of and improves upon the present. This vision is so energising that it in effect jump-starts the future by calling forth the skills, talents, and resources to make it happen. Vision differs from other forms of direction setting in several ways:

A vision has clear and compelling imagery that offers an innovative way to improve, which recognises and draws on traditions, and connects to actions that people can take to realise change. Vision taps peoples emotions and energy. Properly articulated, a vision creates the enthusiasm that people have for sporting events and other leisure-time activities, bringing this energy and commitment to the workplace.

Qualities of a Vision:

The key properties of a vision seem to be inspirational possibilities that are value cantered, realisable, with superior imagery and articulation. Desirable visions fit the times and circumstances and reflect the uniqueness of the organisation. People in the organisation must also believe that the vision is attainable. It should be perceived as challenging yet do-able. Visions that have clear articulation and powerful imagery are more easily grasped and accepted.

Qualities of a Visionary Leader:

Once the vision is identified, these leaders appear to have three qualities that are related to effectiveness in their visionary roles:

The ability to explain the vision to others. Ability to express the vision not just verbally but through the leaders behaviour. The third skill is being able to extend the vision to different leadership contexts.

IQ and technical skills are threshold capabilities. They are necessary, but not sufficient requirements for leadership:

Self-awareness: Exhibited by self-confidence, realistic selfassessment, and a self-deprecating sense of humour Self-management: Exhibited by trustworthiness and integrity, comfort with ambiguity, and openness to change Self-motivation: Exhibited by a strong drive to achieve, optimism, and high organisational commitment Empathy: Exhibited by expertise in building and retaining talent, cross-cultural sensitivity, and service to clients and customers Social skills: Exhibited by the ability to lead change, persuasiveness, and expertise in building and leading teams

Self-Leadership

Model self-leadership. Practice self-observation, set challenging personal goals, self-direction, and self-reinforcement. Then display these behaviours and encourage others to rehearse and then produce them. Encourage employees to create self-set goals. Having quantitative, specific goals is the most important part of self-leadership. Encourage the use of self-rewards to strengthen and increase desirable behaviours. In contrast, self-punishment should be limited only to occasions when the employee has been dishonest or destructive. Create positive thought patterns. Encourage employees to use mental imagery and self-talk to further stimulate self-motivation. Create a climate of self-leadership. Redesign the work to increase the natural rewards of a job and focus on these naturally rewarding features of work to increase motivation. Encourage self-criticism. Encourage individuals to be critical of their own performance.

Some suggested guidelines for the online leader:

Leaders need to be sure the tone of their message correctly reflects the emotions they want to send Online leaders must choose a style. Do they use emoticons, abbreviations, jargon, and the like? The skill of reading between the lines in the messages they receive.

Elements of Effective Leadership

Transformational ability A motivating vision Stimulates followers to think Situational skillIndividual consideration

Personality Honesty and Integrity Intellectual Intelligence Emotional Intelligence Self - Monitoring Self Confidence

Behavioural style task - and people - oriented men more task -, goal - directed women more facilitative, relationship - directed Self - Efficacy Energy and ambition Charisma Desire to lead

Vary style (directive or supportive) to fit: followers motivation and competence task urgency power leader-member relations ability to achieve subordinates goals type of decision needed

Biological

Leadership Development
They need intellectual eagerness, and must learn easily. They must have good memories, determination and a fondness for hard work. If we pick those who are sound in limb and mind and then put them through a long course of instruction and training, we will preserve the constitution of society. Plato Components of Effective Programs Conceptual understanding of leadership Personal growth Feedback and coaching

Skill Building
Developmental centres

Linking Leadership and Communication

Get CEO Commitment Match actions and words Ensure two-way communication Emphasise face-to-face Share responsibility Confront bad news Shape the message for intended audience Treat communications as an ongoing process