SEVEN TOOLS OF QUALITY CONTROL

Seven Tools for identifying Quality problems and their causes for solution & improvement :

1)

Check Sheet : A fact finding tool for collection of information & data of the
measure of variations and count the number of defectives by type (data sheet may be in the form of SPREAD SHEETS arranging data recorded in matrix form). The purpose :

i) recording and keeping track with respect to previous lots ii) providing a record of frequency of quality problem iii) showing where quality problem occurred, (for quality problem identification and analysis).

2)

Stratification : A technique of
(i) RAW MATERIALS :

arranging the collected observations / measured data in different groups, based on segregated CAUSES, like a) Supplier-wise b) Supply Batch-wise

(ii) PRODUCTION

a) Machine-wise b) Operation-wise (Work-Center wise) c) Shift-wise or batch-wise

SEVEN TOOLS OF QUALITY CONTROL

3)

Scatter Diagram :

Quality

A two variables graph, plotting of measurements of the dependable variable of the process (quality characteristic) on Y -axis against an independent process variable like Size / Dimension of job, Cutting Speed, Depth of Cut, etc (on X -axis), to establish the nature of variation of the curve, showing co-relation between the two variables. The co-relation may be : i) Positive Co-relation : increase of dependable variable (quality characteristic) on Y-axis caused by increase of independent variable on X-axis, ie Upward. ii) Negative Co-relation : decrease of dependable variable (quality characteristic) on Y-axis caused by increase of independent variable on X-axis, ie Downward. iii) Zero Co-relation : No change of dependable variable (quality characteristic) on Y-axis caused by any variation of independent variable on X-axis, ie II to X-axis.
Quality Quality

.. . .

. .

. .

. .

.
X

. . . .

X Positive Co-relation Negative Co-relation

X Zero Co-relation

SEVEN TOOLS OF QUALITY CONTROL

4)

Control Charts :

Showing sample measurements of various lots with respect to Central Line (CL), Upper Control Limit (UCL) and Lower Control Limit (LCL), UNTL & USL and LNTL & LSL.

5)

Histogram :
frequency

To analyze (i) How well the histogram is centered, (ii) How wide the histogram is, and (iii) Shape of the histogram : whether Normal Frequency distribution or not.
dimension

6)

Pareto Chart :

To determine the most frequently occurring problems / defects according to their Causative Importance (Cause of defect / rejection / failure). The hierarchy of the Causative factors for the problem makes it easier to tackle them in same order. So, the most frequent Causative Factor/s are identified and separated from the less frequent Causative Factors. Pareto Charts are created by plotting the cumulative frequency data of the relative frequencies arranged in descending order. 1,2,3,4,5,6,7 are causative factors or type of failure. 1 + 2 = 64% + 16% = 80% 1
16% 9%

Frequency of Failure 64%

2 3

5%

3 + 4 + 5 + 6 +7 = 9% + 5% + 3% + 2% + 1% =
3% 2% 1%

20%

Type/Cause of rejection/defect

SEVEN TOOLS OF QUALITY CONTROL

7)

CAUSE & EFFECT ANALYSIS :

Steps :
i) Define problem, ii) Select method of analysis, like Ishikawa Fish Bone Analysis, BrainStorming (with the team of representatives from engineering dept, production dept, inspection dept, etc. and also Why Why Analysis), iii) Draw Fish Bone structure with prime Arrows, iv) Specify major categories of possible sources contributing to the problem, eg Manpower/skill, Material, Machine/equipment, Method /process, Measurement, Environment, Culture, etc., v) Identify possible causes, under each category of problem source, vi) Establish Causal Relations of each cause vii) Analyze for finding Root Causes, viii) suggest corrective action in each category of problem, ix) Test the reality in each suggested remedial step and modify the corrective action if needed.

Assignments :
Make Cause & Effect Analysis with the help of Ishikawa Fish Bone Diagram, for i) ii) iii) House Painting Peeling. Non-conformance of Shaft diameter in production shop. Delayed flight departures.

Material
Dirt mixed Wrong type

Method
Paint on dirty surface

Too thin layer Contaminated Cheap quality Too thick layer

Wrong method of paint application

House Painting Peeling

Brush with Bad bristle Dirty Brush High Humidity Used Brush High Temperature Air Pollution

Wrong Brush

Acid Rain

Machine / Equipment

Environment

CAUSAL RELATION
1. Necessary Cause : The prime cause that MUST BE PRESENT
effect to occur. Without this cause the effect can not come. Example : Combustion is essentially necessary to drive an I.C. Engine.

for

2.

Sufficient Cause : Each of the Sufficient Causes

can alone produce the effect unaided by any other cause (without the help of any other cause), though more than one sufficient causes may be present there for that effect. Any one of the Sufficient Causes can alone cause the effect. Example : battery is dead , Faulty Spark Plugs, Empty Fuel Tank, are the sufficient Causes for the effect that a car will not start. Only one of such sufficient causes can alone result in the effect that the car will fail to start. On the other hand, any one of the Sufficient Causes may not be present for the effect.

3.

Contributory Cause : The cause that helps to produce the effect but
can not do so by itself without the presence of other contributory cause/s. In other words, all the Contributory Causes are to be present to cause the effect. Example : to effect FIRE, contributory causes include the presence of (i) Oxygen, (ii) Fuel or Inflammable materials, (iii) Initiation of Ignition.

BRAIN STORMING
It is the systematic process of idea generation, with the objective : to uncover (open) the hidden quality issues and to help coming up of new innovative and effective ideas, (i) for solving quality problems / issues as well as (ii) for quality improvement, from the participating employees (workers, engineers, supervisors, experts, etc) of the organization. In Brainstorming process, an open discussion is taken up among the selected participants / members (say, workers) under the leadership of the Supervisor, whose role is as a FACILITATOR. Brainstorming process should have the following characteristics, 1. 2. At the first step, the quality problem or quality issue is identified. Each individual member of the brainstorming group can suggest an idea, one by one, relating to solve the quality problem or for quality improvement, related to the issue under consideration. If any member has no new idea, he /she may pass.

3.

4. 5. 6. 7.

8.

9. 10. 11.

No criticism is permitted and members are encouraged to generate new and innovative idea without any fear and hesitation. The idea must be new and unexposed so far and not in use in existing system. Wild ideas are not neglected and not discouraged. They are recorded, because they may trigger other good ideas from somebody else. The Facilitator writes down each and every new idea on the black board for discussions on it, so that every one can see it and think over it, and discuss on it. Detail & free discussions on the idea is encouraged for its (i) effectiveness, (ii) implementation, (iii) ability to solve the problem under consideration, (iv) all positive & negative features as well as side-effects, are carried on. Any modification of the idea for the betterment and more effectiveness is also encouraged in the discussion. The process continues until no further new idea is coming up. The best idea is recommended for consideration.

ROOT CAUSE ANALYSIS

Long term relief from any quality problem can be achieved by eliminating the ROOT CAUSE of the problem and not by eliminating only the symptoms of the problem (which is temporary remedy). When any quality problem is located or identified, immediately Root Cause Analysis should be taken up to locate the source of the quality failure or quality problem, ie the Root Cause leading to the quality failure, so that the Root Cause can be rectified to stop / prevent the further occurrence of such quality failure. By Root Cause Analysis, locating and eliminating the Root Causes leads to the long term relief from generating poor quality can be achieved. Various methods / techniques of Root Cause Analysis are (i) Why Why or 5 Why . (ii) Ishikawa - Fish Bone Diagram. (iii) Failure Mode & Effect Analysis (FMEA) (iv) Fault Tree Analysis (FTA)

5 WHY (Why Why) Method

It is one of the useful methods of Root Cause Analysis. Proceeding towards root cause by consecutively asking WHY at each stage of occurrence, atleast 5 times. In a classic example of this method used in Toyota Motors, a machine repeatedly

failed because of a fuse blew.

Replacing the fuse would have been one solution obviously, however very temporary one and in that case the failure might continue to repeat frequently if the root cause behind such fuse blow was not identified and rectified. So, Toyota applied the 5 Why technique to solve it and find the permanent solution. First WHY : Why did the machine fail ? because the fuse blew. Second WHY : Why did the Fuse blow ? because the bearing of the machine did not have adequate lubrication. Third WHY : Why did the bearing have not adequate lubrication? because the lubrication pump was not working properly. Fourth WHY : Why the lubrication Pump did not work properly ? because the axle of the lubrication pump was worn out. Fifth WHY : Why was the pump axle worn ? because sludge (lubricating oil with particulate matter) seeped into the pump axle. This was the Root Cause. Toyota attached a STRAINER to the lubrication pump to prevent sludge seeping into the pump axle, and obviously the problem of the machine failure was solved instantaneously for long term.

FMEA (Failure Mode & Effects Analysis)

FMEA is a systematic approach to review the design of existing product by analyzing the mode of failure of the product to satisfy the customer, linking with its Causes & Effects, leading to the recommendations for remedial actions. Typical example of FMEA for Pearle Snacks Biscuits :
Failure Mode Stale & damped Effect of Failure Bad taste & loss of crunchiness, perceived as old ; leading to loss of sales Poor display at snacks table & perceived as old, leading to loss of sales Consumption is reduced, health hazard resulting in loss of sales Causes of Failure High moisture content, expiry of true self-life, poor packaging Poor packaging, too brittle, too thin Uneven mixing of spices & salt, process control is poor RPN 550 Remedial Actions Remove moisture by vacuum & baking, better sealing in packaging, specify less (true) life Change the recipe, increase thickness, improve packaging with plastic guard Revise the production process, improve processcontrol

Broken

670

Too salty & too hot

460

Severity Ranking = S, Occurrence (repetition) = O, Failure of prior Detection = D,

[ S, O and D are estimated on 1 10 scale]

Risk Priority Number (RPN) = S x O x D

F T A (Fault Tree Analysis) : FTA is a systematic approach to establish interrelationship among the causes for the fault to select the best solution from the alternative remedial steps, for each failure mode.
Example : for failure of Breakage of the biscuit pieces in the pack reaching at customer end, related to Pearle Snacks Biscuits.
Breakage of biscuits in the pack

Rough handling

Too brittle

Poor packaging

Too thin

Distrib utor

Customer

Change recipe

Change Baking Process

Thin hard plastic case inside the pack

Hard outer pack

Transporter Reduce size (diameter) Increase thickness

Change Baking Temperature

Change Baking Time

And/or

Acceptable solution

Unacceptable solution

Poka Yoke : is an approach for mistake-proofing processes using automatic

devices or methods to avoid simple and very common human errors. The concept was developed and refined in early 1960s by Shigeo Shingo, a Japanese manufacturing engineer who developed Toyota Production System of modern concept Of Lean manufacturing. Baka Yoke (Fool Proof) term was modified later to Poka Yoke (Mistake Proof) on sentimental ground. Poka Yoke is focused on two aspects : (1) Prediction : recognizing that a defect is about to occur and providing a warning, and (2) Detection : recognizing that a defect has occurred and stopping the process flow using defective materials, to stop continuing the generation of defective products. Many application of Poka Yoke are very simple yet Creative, effective & helpful. Usually they are inexpensive to implement. Example : At Yamada Electric plant Of Japan, workers assembled a switch having two push buttons supported by two springs. Occasionally, a worker forgot to insert a spring under each button, which led to a costly and embarrassing repair at the customers premises. Previously the worker used to take one by one two springs from a box containing large quantity of spring before inserting the screw during assembly. Shingo instructed first to place two spring from the box onto a small dish in front of the parts box and then assemble the switch. Now, if a spring remains on the small dish the worker immediately detects his mistake and rectifies.

Some Examples of Poke Yoke : 1. Machines have limit switches connected to warning light and/or sound that tell operator in case parts are positioned improperly on the machine. 2. A device on a drill counts the number of holes drilled on a work piece and a buzzer sounds if the work piece is removed before the correct number of holes has been drilled. 3. Cassette-covers were being frequently scratched when the screwdriver slipped out of the screw slot and slid against the plastic covers. As Poka Yoke, the screw head design were changed to head with partly slotted at middle position to prevent the screwdriver to slip. 4. Computer programs display a warning message if a file that has not been saved is to be closed, or during deleting any file. 5. The SIM Card fitting (one corner of sim card is cut) in the cell phone. 6. If there is any manufacturing defect in a part produced, the Poka Yoke designs the device so that the next machine in the process line will not accept it or will not start to process on it. 7. One production step at Motorola involves putting alphabetic characters on a key board and the checking to make sure the each key is placed correctly. A group of workers designed a clear transparent template with the letters positioned slightly off center. Now, by holding this template over the keyboard under assembly, the operator can easily spot any mistake .

KANO Model on Voice of Customer

Noriaki KANO was a Japanese professor who classified customer requirements/ expectations in 3 categories, Dissatisfiers, Satisfiers and Delighters. 1. DISSATISFIERs : CTQ (Critical to Quality) Characteristics essentially needed by the customers, but not expressed by them. Customers are not extra satisfied if DISSATISFIERs are met, but they are extremely dissatisfied if DISSATISFIERs are not met, because, DISSATISFIERs are assumed as obvious and basic eligibility criteria for quality of the product (like safety features of an automobile). DISSATISFIERs act as Eligibility of product for entry to market-competition.

2.

SATISFIERs : (1) CTQs which the customer prefers to get in the product,
(2) they express that they give importance to such CTQs, and (3) more or better such characteristics are met, customers are more satisfied. Better grade of SATISFIERs make the customer more satisfied. Customers compare the product of different producers based on the degree of Satisfier Factors (example : Fuel efficiency, speed pick-up rates, sun-roof insulation, etc of the automobile). Satisfiers make product more competitive.

3.

DELIGHTERs : New and innovative quality features which are beyond

customers expectation, whose presence leads to very high customerperception of quality. Delighters have very high impact on customers purchase-decision by adding extremely high value to the product with extremely high customer satisfaction. (example : previously Camera and now internet facility in mobile phone, independent rear seat audio control in the car and weather channel button on radio in the automobile). They act as Differentiator.

TIME

Quality Function Deployment

Importance 5 Trade-off matrix

3 Design characteristics
4 Relationship matrix 2 Competitive assessment

1 Customer requirements

Target values

House of Quality

Competitive Assessment of Customer Requirements

Competitive Assessment Customer Requirements Presses quickly 9 1 2 B A 3 X 4 5

Removes wrinkles
Irons well Doesnt stick to fabric Provides enough steam Doesnt spot fabric Doesnt scorch fabric Heats quickly Easy and safe to use Automatic shut-off Quick cool-down Doesnt break when dropped

8
6 8 6 9 6 3 3 5

AB
X AB X AB A XB X X AB B A B

X
BA X

A ABX X A B

Doesnt burn when touched

Not too heavy

5
8

AB X
X

From Customer Requirements to Design CharacteristicsRequirements Customer

Presses quickly
Removes wrinkles Irons well Doesnt stick to fabric Provides enough steam Doesnt spot fabric Doesnt scorch fabric Heats quickly Easy and safe to use Automatic shut-off Quick cool-down

Protective cover for soleplate

Time required to reach 450 F

Time to go from 450 to 100

Material used in soleplate

Flow of water from holes

Energy needed to press

Thickness of soleplate

- + + +
+ + + + - + + + + + + + + + + + + -

+ +

+ - + + + +

Doesnt break when dropped

Doesnt burn when touched Not too heavy

+ + +
+ - +

+
+ + + -

Automatic shutoff

Number of holes

Size of soleplate

Weight of iron

Size of holes

Tradeoff Matrix

Energy needed to press

Weight of iron

Size of soleplate Thickness of soleplate Material used in soleplate

+ -

Number of holes Size of holes

+ +

Flow of water from holes

Time required to reach 450 Time to go from 450 to 100 Protective cover for soleplate Automatic shutoff

Protective cover for soleplate

N N N 3 5

Time to go from 450 to 100

Targeted Changes in Design

Time required to reach 450 Material used in soleplate Flow of water from holes

Energy needed to press

Thickness of soleplate

Units of measure Iron A Iron B Our Iron (X) Estimated impact Estimated cost Targets Design changes
Objective measures

ft-lb 3 4 2 3 3

lb 1.4 1.2 1.7 4 3 1.2 *

in. 8x4 8x4 9x5 4 3 8x5 *

cm 2 1 4 4 3 3 *

ty SS MG T 5 4 SS *

ea 27 27 35 4 3 30 *

mm oz/s sec sec Y/N Y/N 15 15 15 3 3 0.5 0.3 0.7 2 3 45 35 50 5 4 30 * 500 350 600 5 4 500 * Y Y Y 0 2

Automatic shutoff

Number of holes

Size of soleplate

Weight of iron

Size of holes

Quality Management System (QMS)

&

Quality Assurance
Focus : ISO - 9001

ISO : International Standard Organization ISO 9000 : Standard for Quality Management & Quality Assurance
[Previous ISO 9000 was edited in 1993 and next updating and revision in 2000] It is the standard for the Organization having the required Quality
Management System, but not the standard of the Products. [ ISO 9000 was equivalent to ANSI / ASQC Q 90 (US version]

ISO 9000 : Guide line for selection and use. ISO 9001 : Models for Quality Assurance in design, development,
Production, Installation and Services. ISO 9002 : Models of Quality Management System for Quality Assurance in Production, Installation and Services. ISO 9003 : Models for Final Inspection, Auditing and Testing for Quality Assurance. ISO 9004 : Guide line to Managers to build their QMS for effective Quality Management. [ From 2000 version, ISO 9001 and ISO 9002 have been merged to single one ISO 9001, which is applicable to all industries of Production including manufacturing and services, with or without design and development. Now, the latest version of ISO-9001 is 2008.]

[ Being closely related to ASQC (American Society for Quality Control)

RAB

(Registrar Accreditation Board) is the controlling authorities, for the accreditation (approval) & registration of the REGISTRARs for certification of ISO-9000.]

First Party : Supplier / producer organization seeking Certificate for Compliance with ISO 9001, for Quality Assurance and total Customer Satisfaction. Second Party : The REGISTRARs who are CERTIFICATE issuing authorities, after conducting appropriate assessment (through Audit by Lead Auditors) of existing Quality Management System of the certification-seeking organization (supplier / Producer) to assure that its Quality Management System is indeed in compliance with appropriate standard (ISO-9001) to positively achieve the specified quality and reliability of their products. Third Party : The LEAD AUDITORs , the Auditors empanelled and registered with RAB who conduct the QMS Audit on behalf of the Registrar. Organizations which may require to have ISO 9001 certification : a) Manufacturing Industries : Automobile, Metal, Minerals, Fabrication & Machining, Assembly line, Process (Chemicals, Petro-chemical, Paints, Pharmaceutical, Food, Pharmaceuticals) , Electronic goods, Consumer goods, Leather, Furniture, etc. b) Service Industries : Educational Service (Schools and colleges); Medical Units (Clinic, Nursing home, Hospital); IT; Accounting & Auditing; Financial Services; Hotels; Restaurants; 3PL & 4PL; Consultancy; Retail Outlets; Communication Network Service; Postal; Courier; Transport (Roadway; Railway; Airlines; Shipping); Construction; Repair & Maintenance, Security, etc.

(Registrar Accreditation Board) RAB

Accredits & registers (1) Certifies & Empanels (2)

REGISTRARs
Issue ISO-9001 Certificate (7)

Employ (4) Compliance Report (6)

Certified Lead AUDITORs

Supplier / Producer

Audit / Inspection (5)

Applies for Certification (3) Quality Assurance of the Products

Consumer / Customer

Certification Relationship Diagram

Benefits of having ISO 9001 Certification

1) 2) 3) 4) Improves Competitiveness of the business Improves the image (goodwill) and the credibility of the Organization in the market by Assuring the Quality of production Improves confidence of the organization through QMS Improves profitability of the organization by improving economy of production by reducing : i) Quality Rejections ii) Scraps generation iii) Wastes Improves Productivity by Efficient Utilization of input Resources (materials, manpower, machines, utilities, etc) Easy and prompt identification & rectification of fault (if any) for continual improvement of quality, through pin pointing the responsibilities and accountabilities of all employees at all levels. COMPLIANCE to Quality target and specification of product is assured

5)
6)

7)

Steps towards getting ISO 9001 Certification

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Take decision for ISO 9001 Certification ( decide on what business, which unit/s or branch, etc). Select and employ CONSULTANT for assistance (if required). Select RAB accredited REGISTRAR (who will issue the Certificate), with consultation with the employed Consultant. Select MR (Management Representative) for the organization, with consultation with the employed Consultant. Conduct extensive Quality Awareness programme and Quality Training programme among all the employees related in the organization, particularly in that unit or branch, including the management & executive staff, and employees at all levels top to bottom. Select Representatives for Internal Audit of Quality Management System of Quality Assurance, from all the branches and departments of the organization, with consultation with the employed Consultant. Prepare, establish and maintain the Documentations. Train up all the personnel with the Documentations and maintenance of the Forms & Formats. Maintain such Quality Management System (QMS).

6.

7. 8.

9.

10.

11. 12.
13. 14.

15.

16. 17.

18.

Conduct INTERNAL AUDIT (including departmental audit and over all audit). Rectify all defects and all the non-conformances / non-compliances. Apply to selected Accredited Registrar for Certification and Invite the certified LEAD AUDITOR for audit. Conduct a number of MOCK AUDIT, and each time rectify all the nonconformances and re-audit, before the Third Party Audit. Third Party Audit (TPA) is conducted by the LEAD AUDITOR, may be in a number of times. Non-Compliances found in a Third Party Audit is rectified and Lead Auditor is invited for next TPA. Ultimately, in the Final Third Party Audit, there should not be any non-compliance and the Lead Auditor is satisfied to recommend to the accredited REGISTRAR for issuing the Certificate. The accredited Registrar then issues ISO-9001 certificate. The Certificate is valid for some defined period of time, after which renewal must be applied for and there after the Third Party Audit is again done in the same way by certified Lead Auditor before renewed Certificate is issued. Accredited Registrar has the right to inspect and re-audit without notice at any time in the validity period of the running Certificate and to cancel the Certificate if non-compliance is found.

DOCUMENTATIONS :
1.

for ISO-9001 Certification

2.

3.

4.

QUALITY MANUAL : Open Document containing : (1) Quality Policy and (2) Quality Performance target with , (3) overall Quality Procedures for Quality Management System. PROCEDUREs : Confidential Document containing : (1) Detail Procedures quality maintenance and appraisal and (2) Guidelines to each individual, each work-unit and each department, to establish Quality System for achieving assured quality . WORK INSTRUCTIONS : Confidential Document containing : Detail Instructions & Procedural steps (how to work, work-procedural steps) to be strictly followed by each individual, each work unit and each department, for achieving assured quality . FORMS & FORMATS : Confidential Document to be filled up at every steps and every time carefully and accurately, with provision for cross-check, for record and reference needed to maintain fullproof quality management system as well as to pin-point the responsibility & accountability of any fault, failure occurred or chances to occur and thereby to get prompt opportunity for rectification.

TAGUCHIs QUALITY LOSS FUNCTION

Quality Guru Genichi Taguchi said any deviation from the target value of a quality characteristics results in extra cost to some segments of the society. He defined deviation from the quality target as Social Loss in terms of : (i) Loss to Producers, (ii) Loss to the Consumers, and (iii) Loss to Society. The ideal value of performance characteristic is the Target Value. A high quality product performs very close to this Target Value consistently throughout its specified Life span under all operating conditions. Taguchis Quality Loss Function estimates the Social Loss from the failure of a product to meet the quality specification/requirement. Taguchi expressed that such Loss (L) for the variation of the performance characteristic (X) from the Target Value (T) is directly proportional to the square of the Deviation (d). The Loss Function can be expressed as L d2 => L = K . d2 => L = K. (X T)2 Where, K : Quality Loss Coefficient, X : Average value of quality characteristic actually achieved T : Target value of quality characteristic The Quality Loss Function remains valid at all times during the product life.

L = K. (X T)2

Now, if at USL or at LSL (ie with permitted deviation), the Loss is A (which is the average repair cost), for such accepted quality ,

A = K x Dp2
=> Quality Loss Coefficient,

K = A / Dp2

Where Permitted Deviation, Dp = (USL - T) or (T - LSL) K = Quality Loss Coefficient A = Average Repair Cost In case of manufacturing in big lots, Lav = K 2 =>

Lav = K [ S2 + (Xav T)2 ]

Where, = Standard Deviation of the population S = Standard Deviation of the sample [ S2 is variance] T = Target set by the customer or designer Xav = Mean value of measured parameter

Loss (Rs)

L
Customer Tolerance Band

(Xav T)
Dp Dp

Lower Spec. Limit

Target Xav Value

Upper Spec. Limit

(Quality Characteristic ie Process Performance Characteristic)

QUALITY LOSS FUNCTION

Problem-1
A hot-oil-bath manufacturer has set specification of temperature as 1000 60 C for the oil bath being sold by them. The average repair cost at specified limit is $ 360. Find the Quality Loss, when the oil bath performance temperatures are 980C or 1040C. Dp = (USL T) = (T LSL) = 60 C, T = 1000 C, A = $ 360,

K = A Dp2 = $ 360 62 = $ 10 Loss at 980 C, L 98 = K (X T)2 = $ 10 x (98 100)2 = $ 40 Loss at 1040 C, L 104 = K (X T)2 = $ 10 x (104 100)2 = $ 160

Problem-2
For a blower manufacturer the speed of the blower has been specified as 1000 3 rpm. The average repair cost for the product with specified limits USL & LSL of the speed, is Rs 2300. Determine the Quality Loss if the product shows the speed at 1002 rpm. Dp = (USL T) = (T LSL) = 3 rpm, T = 1000 rpm, A = Rs 2300,

K = A Dp2 = Rs 2300 32 = Rs 256 Loss at 1002 rpm, L 1002 = K (X T)2 = Rs 256 x (1002 1000)2 = Rs 1024

Problem-3 Compute the average Quality Loss for a process that produces steel shafts for automobile, if the target value of diameter is specified as 6.40 inch. The Coefficient of Quality Loss is estimated as $ 95000 and the measurements of the sample of sample size eight are 6.36, 6.40, 6.38, 6.39, 6.43, 6.39, 6.46 and 6.42 inch. Sample Size, n = 8, T = 6.40 inch, K = $ 95000 Xav = 6.36 + 6.40 + 6.38 + 6.39 + 6.43 + 6.39 + 6.46 + 6.42 = 6.40375 inch, 8 S = Standard Deviation of the sample = [ { (Xav Xi )2 } (n 1) ] =[ (6.40375 6.36)2 + (6.40375 6.36)2 + + (6.40375 6.36)2 ] (8 1) = 0.0315945 inch Lav = K [ S2 + (Xav T)2 ] = $ 95000 [ (0.0315945)2 + (6.40375 6.40)2 ] = $ 96.20

QUALITY
1.

BENCHMARKING

It is the continuous and systematic process of (a) measuring / evaluating the (i) Quality / performance of the products, (ii) Business process, (iii) work Process & work Procedure , of the target organizations which are recognized as industry-leaders, and (b) identifying the gaps between such best practices & those existing in the own business, to establish the rational performance goals and practices for this business.

2.

3. 4.

It is the method of improving business performance continuously by learning from the business leaders, how to do things better in order to be best in the class. It is the on-going practice of measurement of relative performance against industry leaders, in the key process areas. It is the search for the best practices that will lead to superior performance.

Benchmarking focuses on any of the following :

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. World class business leaders. Business leaders in the country. Leaders in the same industry. Potential competitors in the same industry. Internally (with improved target with respect to present self performance assessment)

Benchmarking Steps :
1) Planning : i) Identify the need and decide what is to be benchmarked. ii) Identify the comparative (best-in-class) organization ie Focus organization. iii) Determine the scope & objectives and develop a project Plan for benchmarking. 2) Analysis : iv) Determine data collection method. v) Collect data on focus organizations as well as own organization. vi) Compare data and analyze to determine the current performance gaps, for recommendation. 3) Integration : vii) Project future performance levels. viii) Communicate Benchmark findings to gain acceptance from all relevant departments and from all levels. 4) Action : ix) Establish functional goals. x) Develop Action Plan to attain the superior performance benchmark-level. xi) Implement the specific action plan and monitor the progress and improvement. xii) Recalibrate (update) Benchmark.

AREAS OF BENCHMARKING
1. COMPETITIVE BENCHMARKING on i) Products : Pricing & Quality (Features, Performance characteristics and other quality characteristics) ii) Process & Technology iii) Work-procedure in production, packing, Quality Control, Logistics & Supply Chain, maintenance, etc. iv Business Performance v) Customer Service PROCESS BENCHMARKING It includes key business process or work processes like Distribution, Order-entry, Procurement, Order-processing, Training & Development, etc. STRATEGIC BENCHMARKING It includes the strategy adopted by the successful competitors to achieve success through their Order Winning Strategy, having competitive advantage. INTERNAL BENCHMARKING Benchmarking is set at higher level of performance and improved system with reference to existing one, inside the organization.

2.

3.

4.

Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award (MBNQA)

The Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award is an annual award that recognizes U.S. organizations in the field of (i) business, (ii) health care, (iii) education, and (iv) nonprofit sectors for performance excellence in Quality.
[It is is named after the quality-management champion Malcolm Baldridge (1922-87) who was the secretary of commerce (1981-87) in Ronald Reagan administration. It is managed by the National Institute of Standards and Technology and conferred by the American Society For Quality.] This prestigious quality award is being given annually from 1987 in USA, to one or two Organizations (both private and public), for the best achievement in the area of Total Quality Management, in each of the following three categories of business sector, (i) Manufacturing, (ii) Services, and (iii) Small business with employee number less than 500.

Objective of the MBN Quality Award :

(i) (ii) (iii) (iv) To stimulate U.S. business companies to improve their quality level. To establish useful criteria for the business companies for evaluating their own individual quality improvement effort. To SET the Quality of successful organization as the Quality BENCHMARK (ideal/example in the industry as Industry Leader), for improvement of quality of other industries. To help other organizations to learn how to manage quality by disseminating information about the Award Winning Program.

Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award

(v) Award Winner organizations become confident & competent and the MODEL or Benchmark for other organizations to emulate in establishing their Total Quality Management program. They become the Leaders of Quality. [eg Motorola, Xerox, Cadillac, Milliken, IBM, Federal Express, etc] (vi) To set the standards to be used as the BASELINE for TQM, in the following seven CRITERIA for Performance Excellence :

(1) Leadership :The organizations leadership system and senior leaders personal leadership (2) Strategic Planning :How the organization sets strategic directions and how it develops the critical strategies and action plans (3) Customers and Market Focus: How the company determines requirements, expectations, and preferences of customers and markets (4) Human Resources : How the company enables employees to develop and utilize their full potential, aligned with the companys objectives (5) Information, Measurement, Analysis & Knowledge Management : The selection, management, and effectiveness of use of information and data to support key company processes and action plans, and the companys performance management system (6) Process Management : How key processes are designed, implemented, managed, and improved (7) Business Result : The organizations performance and improvement in key business areas like :
(a) Customer satisfaction, (b) Product & Services, (c) Financial & Market Share (d) Organizational effectiveness, (e) Governance & Social responsibility.

Points allotted for Assessment in MBNQA Criteria 1. Leadership 2. Information & Analysis 3. Strategic Quality Planning 4. Human Resource Utilization 5. Quality Assurance 6. Quality Result 7. Customer Satisfaction TOTAL

Points 100 60 90 150 150 150 300 1000

Who can use MBNQA :

Whether the organization is, 1. small or large business, 2. involved in service or manufacturing, 3. government or nonprofit making or private organizations, and 4. has one office or multiple offices/sites inside the country or across the globe.

QUALITY CIRCLE

Quality Circles were first seen in the United States in the 1950s Quality Circles were developed by Dr. Kaoru ISHIKAWA in Japan in the 1960s Quality Circles were re-exported to the US in the early 1970s 1980s brought Total Quality Management and a reduction in the use of Quality Circles Quality Circles can be a very useful tool if used properly.

What is a Quality Circle?

QUALITY CIRCLE is the VOLUNTARY groups of employees (working on similar tasks or sharing the same area of responsibility) who agree to meet on a regular basis (i) to identify & solve all the quality problems and issues related to that work-area, and (ii) for continuous improvement. Quality Circle operates on the philosophy of employees participation with empowerment in decision-making and problem-solving which improves the quality of work. Quality circle provides opportunities to the employees at the worker-level to (i) identify quality problem, if any, (ii) solve the quality problem effectively and (iii) take measure for continuous improvement and thus to proceed towards the top level of the organization. OBJECTIVE : (i) Increase Productivity, (ii) Improve Quality (iii) Boost Employee Morale

QUALITY CIRCLE

Ten Essential Characteristics of Quality Circle :

1. 2.
3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Membership is purely VOLUNTARY. Membership is drawn from workers doing similar job or from same workarea. The size of quality circle should be appropriate (neither large nor small). Q.Circle Team sets all the Regulations of the Circle and its task-Priorities. Q. Circle Team identifies the Quality Problems & decides (by making Consensus of the Quality Circle team, on how to solve them. Leadership of the Circle should be selected from and within the Members of the Circle or some times may be the Supervisor. Full management-support towards the functioning of Quality Circle.

Extensive TRAINING of the operator-members on Quality Issues, Solving of Quality Problems and Continuous improvement 9. Members need to be EMPOWERED in decision making 10. Members need to have the support, recognition, appreciation and rewards from Senior Management for the functioning & performance of the Quality Circle.

# S I Z E of the Quality Circle

The Size of Quality Circle should usually be between 4 they can be upto a maximum of fifteen (15).

to 12 members but Ideal size is 8 to 10 .

[Larger size of Quality Circle, tend to lose their DYNAMISM , while Smaller size of Quality Circle, often lose their CREATIVE CAPACITY.]

QUALITY CIRCLE

# Common Causes of failure of Quality Circle

Implementation :
1. 2. 3. 4. Inappropriate SIZE of Quality Circle (ideal 8 to 10) Wrong Selection of Members of Quality-Circle (if not from same work area) Members are not truly Voluntary, but forced Wrong Selection of the Leader of Quality-Circle (if not from and among the members of the Circle, or if top official / management person) Inadequate Training of Members Lack of Management Interest and support Not really empowering Quality Circles to make relevant decisions. Infrequent (inadequate number of) Quality Circle MEETING (should be atleast once in a month). Quality Circles functioning & performance not recognized or appreciated or rewarded by the management. Unfavorable industrial Relation with trade unions. Unsure about the Purpose of Quality Circle.

5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

TOTAL PRODUCTIVE MAINTENANCE (TPM)

Total Productive Maintenance (TPM) is a team-oriented and Participation - based Equipment-maintenance program. It is a combination of (1) Preventive & Predictive Maintenance (2) Autonomous (participative) Maintenance. with

It emphasizes on Equipment Maintenance with : (i) Operators involvement with Team work, and (ii) Operators feeling of Ownership of Equipment & of its Performance, (iii) Preventive & Predictive Maintenance.

OBJECTIVE :
1) 2) 3)

To improve PRODUCTIVITY by

maintaining improved product QUALITY through improving working condition of machine, so that cost of quality-rejection comes down; reducing equipment Maintenance Cost through operators self maintenance; increasing production volume through (i) decreasing machine breakdown time (increasing equipment availability) and (ii) reducing the chance of processing-speed reduction of the machine

TPM combines (i) the American practice of Preventive and Predictive Maintenance (ii) with the Japanese concepts of Total quality control and total employee involvement, promoting operators maintenance through day-to-day monitoring activities. TPM ensures Rapid and Continuous Improvement of Productivity in manufacturing industries by eliminating the losses like 1. Equipment Breakdown Losses (equipment Idle Time), 2. Speed Losses (due to inefficiency of equipment), and 3. Quality Losses (due to Poor Quality Output).

TPM eliminate the RISK of : 1. Equipment Breakdowns, creating interruption in production 2. Quality Defects, generated from faulty / defective equipment 3. Failure of On-time delivery 4. Equipment Related Productivity Losses 5. Other Manufacturing Losses (Wastes, Scraps, etc)

Measurement of EFFECTIVENESS of TPM

TPM helps to improve (i) Equipment Availability, (ii) Performance Efficiency and (iii) Quality Rate of output.

Overall Equipment Effectiveness (OEE)

Overall Equipment Effectiveness (OEE) is a measure of effectiveness of TPM implementation and is the product of three efficiency measures: (i) availability, (ii) productivity, and (iii) quality. OEE is the combined measure of these three improvement criteria as a result of the success or effectiveness of implementing TPM.

The three measurables

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Equipment Availability (Time) Equipment Performance (Speed) Quality Yield (Quality performance) Equipment Downtime Loss (Breakdowns) Quality Rejections Loss (Scrap Rate) Reduced equipment-speed Loss Set-up time Loss (Engineering Adjustment) Start-up loss Minor Stoppages Loss (Unplanned Breaks)

which consider 'SIX BIG Losses

EQUIPMENT PERFORMANCE MEASURES

Overall Equipment Effectiveness (OEE)

Overall Equipment Effectiveness, OEE = Equip. Availability x Performance Efficiency x Quality Rate OEE = E A x P E x Q R Equipment Availability = Net Operating Time x 100% Total Available Time [ Net Operating Time = Total Available Time Total Time Loss ] Performance Efficiency = Design Cycle Time x Total items Run x 100% Net Operating Time [Total Parts Run is the Total no. of output produced including rejects]
Quality Rate (Quality Yield) = Total items Run Total Defects x 100% Total items Run

[ Typical example of very good OEE = 87% x 90% x 96% = 75%]

Example (OEE) One Metal Processing plant has the present performance data for one week of operation, as follow. Analyze the OEE and advise. Operating schedule = 120 hrs/week Non-operation time = 250 min/week Maintenance downtime = 500 min/week Changeover downtime = 4140 min/week Ideal production rate = 9.2 pieces/min Total output = 15,906 pieces/week Rejected pieces = 558 per week OEE =EA x PE x QR Total available time = (120 hrs)(60 min/hr) = 7200 min Total time loss = (250 + 500 + 4140) minutes Net Operating time = Total available time Total time loss = 7200 (250 + 500 + 4140) = 2,310 min EA = Net Operating time Total available time EA = 2310 7200 = 0.32 PE = (Design cycle time x Total output) Net Operating time PE = [(1/9.2)min/ pieces x (15,906)] (2,310 min) = [(0.109)(15,906)] 2,310 = 0.75 QR = (Total output rejects) Total output = (15,906 558) 15,906 = 0.96 OEE = EA x PE x QR = (0.32)x(0.75)x(0.96) = 0.23 = 23%

DEMING WHEEL / PDCA CYCLE

Meaning of PDCA cycle :
The PDCA Cycle is a checklist of the four stages which you must go through to get from `problem-faced' to `problem solved and for continuous quality improvement. PDCA (plan-do-check-act) is an interactive four-step problem-solving process typically used in BPI (Business Process Improvement). It is also known as the Deming Circle,, Deming cycle, Deming wheel, Shewhart cycle or plan-do-study-act. PLAN : Plan for changes to bring about improvement. Establish the objectives and processes necessary to deliver results in accordance with the expected output. By focussing onto the expected output, it differs from other techniques in respect that the completeness and accuracy of the specification is also part of the improvement. Customer Supplier mapping, Flow-charting, Root Cause Analysis, Brainstorming, FMEA, FTA, Pareto Analysis,etc. DO : Do changes on a small scale first to trial them. Implement the new processes to test. CHECK : Check to see if changes are working by Measure the result of new processes and compare the results against the expected results to ascertain any differences. Analyze the differences to determine their cause.

ACT : Act to get greatest benefits from changes. Each will be part of either one or more of the P-D-C-A steps. Determine where to apply changes that will include improvement. When a pass through these four steps does not result in the need to improve, refine the scope to which PDCA is applied until there is a plan that involves improvement.

BATH-TUB CURVE :
The PROBABILITY OF FAILURE or Un-Reliability of a product generally follow a typical Hazard-Curve or Failure Curve called BATH-TUB CURVE. The typical Hazard-Curve showing the variation of Hazard Rate or Failure Rate (failures per time) of the product with respect to Time variation, along products life, is a smooth curve in the shape of a Bath-Tub, and because of its shape such curve is called Bath- Tub Curve. Failure Rate
Infant Failure Service Failure Wear-out Failure

Infant Mortality / Break-in Period USEFUL LIFE Wear-out Life

Time

(I) (II)

Bath-Tub Curve has three clear Failure Zones (i) Infant Failure Zone, (ii) Service Failure Zone, and (iii) Wear-out Failure Zone. Bath-Tub Curve indicates that the Product LIFE is divided into two major sectors (i) USEFUL LIFE, and (ii) WEAR-OUT LIFE. [Useful Life includes Infant Failure Zone & Service Failure Zone.]

Infant Failure Zone (Infant Mortality / Break-in Period) : is short initial

period of product life, during which Early Failure of the product or component takes place due to the defects in (i) Product Design (Inherent DESIGN Weakness of the part / section), (iii) Assembly (eg alignment, fitting, etc) (iv) quality of material of construction, (v) workmanship, (vi) surface preparation / lining (eg insulation, surface hardening ,surface finish, etc), and due to (vii) Improper operation (eg application of excess load; beyond specified operating condition like dust, temperature, humidity, pressure, etc) In this zone, Failure Rate decreases rapidly with Time to reach a steady level.

Service Failure Zone : Failure Rate or Hazard Rate becomes (i) constantly
LOWEST, (ii) failures are very Occasional & Random, (iii) fairly evenly distributed, (iv) failure density is STEADY and exponential in nature (Failure Rate is constant and parallel to Time-axis) leading to Constant and low Failure Rate curve. Wear-out Failure Zone : The Failure Rate increases rapidly with Time due to ageing, wear & tear, fatigue and corrosion, etc., (specially after specified LIFE)

RELIBILITY : of the product is the PROBABILITY that the product will

perform as per the SPECIFIED (defined) QUALITY - during its SPECIFIED LIFE TIME - under SPECIFIED OPERATING & UNVIRONMENTAL CONDITION. Reliability is the Probability of success in performance of the goods / Product . In Reliability testing / FAILURE TEST, Reliability, Hazard Rate, Failure Density, etc. at a given time, is given by, 1) Reliability, R = Number of survivors at the end of a given time Total population of product at the beginning 2) Hazard Rate, Z = Number of failure during particular unit interval Average population during the interval 3) Failure Density, fd = Number of failure during given time interval Total population of product at the beginning 4) Failure Rate, : Number of Failure of the product per unit time (say, so many failures per hour).

5) Mean Time Between Failures (MTBF) :

it is the mean of the time gaps between two consecutive failures of the product under operation. MTBF indicates mean Time gap between n th. failure and (n+1)th. failure.

6) Mean Time To Failure,

where, N = No. of specimen (sample size),

ti = Time of failure for i th specimen MTTF = ( ti ) N

where,

i = 1 to N

MTTF = 1 For Constant Hazard Rate 7) RELIABILITY of an item during the particular operating period t, [Euler's constant or Napier's constant, e = 2 + 1/2 + 1/(2 3) + 1/(2 3 4) + 1/(2 3
4 5) +

Rt = e

.t

e = 2.71828 182846]

Example-1 : Failure Test was conducted for electric bulbs on a sample of size of 1000 with total duration of test of 10 days. The result Data of such failure test is given below. Find at the end of each unit time-period (i) Failure density, (ii) Hazard Rate, (iii) Reliability and also calculate (iv) Mean Hazard Rate, .

Time (t) day No. of failures (f)

0 0

1 210

2 143

3 117

4 96

5 77

6 65

7 90

8 135

9 50

10 17

Answer-1 :
Time No. of (t) days failures (ft) Cumulative failures (Ft) No. of Survivors (St=N Ft)
1000 790 647 530 434 357

Failure Density fd (= ft / N)
0.210 0.143 0.117 0.096 0.077

Hazard Rate (Zt=ft /Mean of St & St-1)

0.235 0.199 0.199 0.199 0.199

Reliability (Rt = St /N)

0 1 2 3 4 5

0 210 143 117 96 77

0 210 353 470 566 643

1.000 0.790 0.647 0.530 0.434 0.357

6
7 8 9

65
90 135 50

708
798 933 983

292
202 67 17

0.065
0.090 0.135 0.050

0.200
0.364 1.0037 1.190

0.292
0.202 0.067 0.017

10

17

1000

0.017

2.000

0.000

fd1 = 210 / 1000 = 0.210 Z1 = 210 (1000+790) / 2 = 210/895 = 0.235 Rt1 = 790 / 1000 = 0.790

Total : 5.785

Z2 = 143 (790+647) / 2 = 0.199

Mean Hazard Rate, h

= 5.785 10 = 0.5785 = 57.85%

Example-2 :
Determine MTTF for a mission time of 1000 hours life, if the Test of Failure data on a sample of 10 such items indicates the time to fail as shown below. Find also the Reliability of the item for the specified life of 1000 Hours Item No. Time to Fail (Hrs) 1 807 2 820 3 810 4 875 5 900 6 837 7 850 8 790 9 866 10 815

Answer-2 : MTTF = ( ti ) N = (807+820+810+875+900+837+850+790+866+815) 10 = 8370 10 = 837 Hours Considering constant Hazard Rate,

Failure Rate, 1 = MTTF = 1 837 = 0.0012 failures / Hour Reliability for 1000 Hours specified life, R1000 = e
=
.t

0.0012 x 1000

1.2

= 0.3012 = 30.12%

Example- 3 :
What is the Reliability of a product item for an operating period of 200 hours, if the Failure Test shows a failure rate of 0.4 x 10 5 failures / hour. If originally 5000 such items were under this test, how many items failed in 200 hours ?

Answer-3 :
Given,

4.0 = x 10 5

failures / hour

t = 200 hours

Reliability for 200 Hours specified life, R200 =

.t

= e 0.0008 =0.9992 = 99.92% Original no. of item under test, No = 5000 If Number of survival after 200 hours = Ns, Reliability at 200hours, R200 = Ns / No => Ns = No x R200 = 5000 x 0.9992 = 4996 = e
No. of failed items in 200 hours, Nf = No Ns = 5000 4996 = 4 items

0.000004 x 200

RELIABILITY
OF A SYSTEM

Series Configuration

System Reliability- Series Configuration

When Reliability (Probability of successful operation) of the System depends on successful functioning of all its components/units, simultaneously. Units : 1, 2, 3, , n
1 2 3

System

Configuration Block Diagram

Configuration : Series Events : Successful function of the units X1, X2, X3, .. , Xn

Probability of successful function of the units : R(X1), R(X2), R(X3), . , R(Xn). Condition of successful function of System : All the units to function successfully and under the condition of, (i) If the reliability of X1, X2, X3, , Xn are INDEPENDENT (successful functioning of any unit is not dependent on successful functioning of remaining units) System Reliability, R(sys) = R[(X1) and (X2) and (X3) and .. (Xn)]

System Reliability, R(sys) = R(X1) x R(X2) x R(X3) x .. x R(Xn)

since R < 1, R(sys) < R(X)min Reliability of System in SERIES Configuration is always less than the Reliability of the poorest unit.

Parallel Configuration

System Reliability

When Reliability (Probability of successful operation) of the System depends on successful functioning of any one of its components/unit, at any time. For successful functioning of the System, atleast one of its unit has to function satisfactorily
Units : 1, 2, 3, , n Configuration : Parallel Events : Successful functioning of the units as X1, X2, X3, .. , Xn and Unsuccessful functioning of the units as X1, X2, X3, .. , Xn Reliability (Probability of successful function) of the units :

1 2

3
System

Configuration Block Diagram

Un-Reliability (Probability of failures) of the units :

R(X1), R(X2), R(X3), . , R(Xn).

_ _ _ _ P(X1), P(X2), P(X3), . , P(Xn).

Where,

_ P(X1) = 1 R(X1)

R(sys) = R(X1 or X2 or X3 or Xn) ___ _ _ _ _ Or, P(sys) = P(X1 and X2 and X3 and Xn) _ _ _ _ = P(X1) x P(X2) x P(X3) x x P(Xn)

System Reliability- Parallel Configuration

(i) If the unit failures are INDEPENDENT of the failure of other units,
___ _ _ _ _ P(sys) = P(X1) x P(X2) x P(X3) x x P(Xn) ___ Now, R (sys) = 1 P(sys) _ _ _ _ So, R (sys) = 1 [ P(X1) x P(X2) x P(X3) x x P(Xn) ]

R (sys) = 1 [ 1 R(X1)] x [ 1 - R(X2)] x [1 - R(X3)] x x [1 - R(Xn) ] (ii) If the units are identical and unit failures are INDEPENDENT of the failure of other units, For Parallel System R (sys) = 1 [ 1 R(X) ]n
For Series System

R (sys) = [ R(X) ]n

# In Parallel Config, (i) System-Reliability increases with increased no. of units & (ii) System Reliability is more than the maximum individual- componentReliability But in Series config. (i) System-Reliability decreases with no. of units & (ii) System Reliability is less than the minimum individual- componentReliability]

System Reliability Parallel

For TWO units when failures are INDEPENDENT , Pf sys = Pf (X1 and X2) = Pf (x1) x Pf(X2) __ __ __ => R(sys) = R(X1) x R(X2) => 1 R (sys) = [ 1 R(a)] x [ 1 - R(b)] => R (sys) = 1 [ 1 R(a)] x [ 1 - R(b)] Alternatively, R(sys) = R (a or b) = R (a) + R (b) R (a and b) => R (sys) = R (a) + R (b) R (a) . R (b)

Example-1 System Reliability - Series In a Control Valve system consisting Sensor, Actuator, Linkage and Valve, the units are independently functioning and interconnected in a Series Configuration. Reliability of individual units are measured as 91%, 84%, 88% and 94% respectively. What will be the Reliability of System? [63.23%] Example-2 A system has 40 identical but independent units connected in series config. Probability of Failure of each unit is 2%. Estimate the Reliability of the system. [20%] Example-3 A system has 10 identical but independent components connected in series configuration. Probability of the system to be achieved is 95%. Estimate the required Reliability of each component. [99.49%] Example-4 A system has 4 identical but independent components connected in series configuration. Each component has a constant failure rate of 0.006 failures / hour. Determine the Reliability of the system for operating hour of 100 hours. [9.07%]

Example-5

System Reliability - Series

A communication system consists of 3 component a Transmitter, a receiver and an encoder connected in series configuration. Failure of one unit cause system failure. Each component operates for different period of operation during 8 hours of communication. The operational periods of the components during 8 hours of operation of the system are 6, 8 & 4 hours, respectively. The failure rate of the components are 0.0238, 0.0013 & 0.0200 failure/hour, respectively. What will be the Reliability of the communication system for 8 hours ?

Answer-5
Unit
Transmitter Receiver Encoder

Operation Period (t) hrs

6 8 4

Failure Rate
() 0.0238 0.0013 0.0200

xt
0.1428 0.0104 0.0800

Reliability (Ri = e - t )
0.8669 0.9897 0.9231

System Reliability, R(sys) = R1 x R2 x R3 =0.8669 x 0.9897 x 0.9231

79.20%

Example-6 System Reliability- Parallel A system has 5 identical units connected in parallel configuration. Each unit has reliability of 90%. If unit-failures are independent, what is system reliability ? [99.99%] Example-7 A system with parallel configuration has 10 identical but independent components. If System Reliability is targeted to be 0.95, estimate how poor can the components be ? [25.81%] Example-8 A system has 4 identical components connected in parallel configuration and shows a system reliability of 0.90. How many more components should be required to be added in parallel to get a system reliability of 0.99 ? [4] Example-9 A system has 2 components of reliability 0.95 and 0.92 , in parallel configuration. Calculate the system reliability. [99.60%]

# Answer to Ex-8

System Reliability - Parallel

A system has 4 identical components connected in parallel configuration and shows a system reliability of 0.90. How many more components should be required to be added in parallel to get a system reliability of 0.99 ? Ans : For independently functioning units in Parallel Configuration,

=> => => =>

R(sys) = 1 [ 1 R(X) ] n 0.90 = 1 [ 1 R(X) ] 4 [1 - R(X) ] 4 = 1 0.90 = 0.10 1 - R(X) = (0.10) 0.25 = 0.5623 R(X) = 0.4377

Now, to achieve system reliability R(sys) = 0.99, R(sys) = 1 [ 1 R(X) ] n => 0.99 = 1 [ 1 0.4377 ] n => [1 0.4377 ] n = 1 0.99= 0.01 => (0.5623) n = 0.01 => n . log 0.5623 = log 0.01 =>

n = log 0.01 log 0.5623 = 7.99 8

So, to get system reliability of 0.99, to be added in parallel. Ans.

4 more components are required

Product (System) Reliability can be improved by :

1) IMPROVING QUALITY & RELIABILITY (material, design, size, workmanship, additional safety features, etc) of all the component or unit. However, it requires increased processing Time and COST. Required System Reliability can be targeted at the Optimizing the Total Effective Cost, where Total Effective Cost = (Production Cost + R & D Cost) + (Maintenance Cost + Cost of Spares)

Cost

Total Effective Cost

COST TRADE-OFF

Redundancy Preference Zone Production Cost

Optimum Cost

R & D Cost

Cost of Spares Maintenance Cost

Optimum Reliability

1.0

Quality & Reliability

2)

By REDUNDANCY

Reliability Improvement

Redundancy is deliberately creating / providing new (additional) PARALLEL path of the component or unit (sub-system), in the system (product), to improve the reliability of the system (product), without further improving the quality or reliability of individual component (unit) or sub-system, in the product. example : a
Original : Reliability

a R(a) b
With Redundancy : Reliability

R(s) R(s) = R (a or b) = R(a) + R(b) R(a and b) = R(a) + R(b) R(a) . R( b)

= R(a) + R(b) [ 1 R(a) ] So, R(s) > R(a) and similarly R(s) > R(b) thus RELIABILITY IS IMPROVED.

If, a & b are identical, R(s) = 2 R(a) [R(a)] 2

Redundancy may be of 3 types : 1) Element Redundancy (each element is duplicated in parallel) 2) Unit Redundancy (each sub-system is duplicated in parallel) 3) Stand-by Redundancy

Example :
a1 b1 a1
a2
Original Configuration ( a1 & b1)

Reliability Improvement By Redundancy

b1
b2

a1
a2

b1
b2

Element Redundancy (a1 or a2) & (b1 or b2)

Unit Redundancy (a1 & b1) or (a2 & b2)

Assumption : Redundancy-elements are identical (a1 = a2 and b1 = b2)

1) Originally : Reliability, R(s) = R[a1 & b1] = R(a1) x R(b1) =

R(a) x R(b)

for identical elements (i.e. a = b) R(s) = R x R = R2 1) Element Redundancy : Reliability, R(s) = R[(a1 or a2) & (b1 or b2)] = R[a1 or a2] x R[b1 or b2] = [R(a1) + R(a2) R(a1).R(a2)] x [R(b1) + R(b2) R(b1).R(b2)] = = [R(a) x R(b)].[(2 R(a))x(2 R(b))] 2 2

[ 2R(a) R (a) ] x [ 2R(b) R (b)]

for identical elements (i.e. a = b)

R(s) >> R(a) x R(b)

2) Unit Redundancy : = [R(a1) x R(b1)] + [R(a2) x R(b2)] [R(a1) x R(b1)] x [R(a2) x R(b2)] = 2 R(a) x R(b) [R(a)2 x R(b)2] for identical elements (i.e. a = b) 2
R(s) = (2R2 R4) = R .(2 R2)

R(s) = (2R R2)2 = R2 .(2 R)2 Reliability, R(s) = R[(a1 & b1) or (a2 & b2)]

R Element Redundancy = R2 .(2 R)2

= R2 .(4 + R2 4R)

= R2 .[(2 R2 ) + (2 + 2R2 4R)] = R2 . (2 R2 ) + R2 . (2 + 2R2 4R) = R Unit Redundancy + 2R2 (1 + R2 2R) R Element Redundancy = R Unit Redundancy + [ 2R2 (1 R)2 ] Now,
So,

[ 2R2 (1 R)2 ]

is definitely positive, as R<1.

R Element Redundancy > R Unit Redundancy