Nuclear Energy

By Oriel Wilson Race Poverty and the Urban Environment Professor Raquel R. Pinderhughes Urban Studies Program San Francisco State University Spring 2003

Brief History
Nuclear energy was first discovered in 1934 by Enrico Fermi. The first nuclear bombs were built in 1945 as a result of the infamous Manhattan Project. The first plutonium bomb, code-named Trinity, was detonated on July 16, 1945 in New Mexico. On August 6th 1945 the first uranium bomb was detonated over Hiroshima. Three days later a plutonium bomb was dropped on Nagasaki. There is over 200,000 deaths associated with these detonations. Electricity wasnt produced with nuclear energy until 1951.

Penetration of Radioactive particles

Uranium
Uranium is usually mined similarly to other heavy metalsunder ground or in open pits but other methods can also be used. After the uranium is mined it is milled near the excavation site using leaching processes. The mining process explained here is a combination of two of major mines in Australia. Then we will look at the Navajo uranium miners who were some of the first uranium miners. Next I will explain some of the other community and environmental impacts associated with the mining processes.

Milling & Leaching

The ore is first crushed into smaller bits, then it is sent through a ball mill where it is crushed into a fine powder. The fine ore is mixed with water, thickened, and then put into leaching tanks where 90% of the uranium ore is leached out with sulfuric acid. Next the uranium ore is separated from the depleted ore in a multistage washing system. The depleted ore is then neutralized with lime and put into a tailings repository.

Nuclear Fuel Cycle

We will start the nuclear fuel cycle with a brief explanation of how nuclear energy works, the enrichment process, and then power reactors. Following will be information on Three Mile Island and Chernobyl, the risk of reactor leaks, and the impacts on the communities and the environment. Then we will discuss the nuclear weapons program, including the use of depleted uranium, Hiroshima and Nagasaki, weapons testing, and the effects on soldiers, victims, communities, and the environment.

Key terms
Nuclear energysynonymous with atomic energy, is the energy produced by fission or fusion of atomic nuclei. Atomsare made of three main parts: protons, neutrons, and electrons . The protons and neutrons make up the center of the atom while the electrons orbit around the center . Atomic numberthe number of protons in an element that identifies it. Isotopeif an atom has a different number of neutrons from protons. Isotopes, measured by their total weight called mass number are the sum of neutrons and protons. Some isotopes are unstable and will decay to reach a stable statethese elements are considered radioactive. Ionif an atom has a different number of electron from protons. Fission occurs when an atoms nucleus splits apart to form two or more different atoms. The most easily fissionable elements are the isotopes are uranium 235 and plutonium 239. Fissionable elements are flooded with neutrons causing the elements to split. When these radioactive isotopes split, they form new radioactive chemicals and release extra neutrons that create a chain reaction if other fissionable material is present. While Uranium, atomic number 92, is the heaviest naturally occurring element, many other elements can be made by adding protons and neutrons with particle accelerators or nuclear reactors. In general, the fission process uses higher numbered elements. Fusionis the combining of one or more atomsusually isotopes of hydrogen, which are deuterium and tritium. Atoms naturally repel each other so fusion is easiest with these lightest atoms. To force the atoms together it takes extreme pressure and temperature, this can be produced by a fission reaction.

Conversion
To enrich uranium it must be in the gas form of UF6. This is called conversion. The conversion diagram shown here is from Honeywell. First the yellow cake is converted to uranium dioxide through a heating process (this step was also mentioned in the mining process). Then anhydrous hydrofluoric acid is used to make UF4. Next the UF4 is mixed with fluorine gas to make uranium hexafluoride. This liquid is stored in steel drums and crystallizes.

Fuel Fabrication
After being enriched, the UF6 is taken to a fuel fabrication facility that presses the powder into small pellets. The pellets are put into long tubes. These tubes are called fuel rods. A fuel assembly is a cluster of these sealed rods. Fuel assemblies go in the core of the nuclear reactor. It takes approximately 25 tonnes of fuel to power one 1000 MWe reactor per year. The picture on the right is a fuel assembly.

Nuclear Reactors
There are usually several hundred fuel assemblies in a reactor core. There are several types of reactors, but they all use a controlled fission process with a moderator like water or graphite. During the fission process, plutonium is created and half of the plutonium also fissions accounting for a third of the energy. The fission process makes heat that is converted to energy (see following diagrams). Pictured above is the Diablo Canyon reactor in California.

Electricity Consumption
1-3) power is generated or imported. 4) high voltage power lines make up the grid that connects power generators and neighborhood substations. 5) substation steps down the power and connects to the distribution system. 6) the distribution systems link to most customers.

Reactor Types
PRWPressurized Water Reactordoes not boil, but uses the pressure of the water to heat a secondary source of water that generates electricity. Most popular (accounts for 65% of reactors world wide). Considered a light water reactor. BRWBoiling Water Reactorboils water (coolant) that makes steam to turn turbines. Conducive to internal contamination. Also considered a light water reactor. RBMKGraphite-moderated pressure tube boiling-water reactor similar to BWR but uses graphite and oxygen. Complex and difficult to examine. CANDUCanadian Deuterium UraniumDoesnt use enriched fuel. Has lots of tubes and internal contamination issues. MagnoxGas cooled reactor. Cooled with carbon dioxide or helium, and uses natural uranium. (UK and France). AGRAdvanced Gas-cooledalso cooled with carbon dioxide or helium. Uses enriched uranium. (UK). Fast Breederhigh temperature gas reactor. Uses U235, U238, and Plutonium 239. Very dangerous because it uses liquid sodium in the primary circuit and in inflammable with air and explosive with water.

Power Reactor

Environmental Impacts
Radioactive fall out spread throughout the Ukraine and Europe, and eventually the whole northern hemisphere. In the local ecosystem (10 km radius) coniferous tress and small mammals died. The natural environment is recovering but there may be long-term genetic effects.

Conclusion
Nuclear energy has no typical pollutants or greenhouse gasses Nuclear waste contains high levels of radioactive waste, which are active for hundreds of thousands of years.

The controversy around nuclear energy stems from all parts of the nuclear chain.