Dr Martin Given

Department of Electronic and Electrical Engineering

Circuit Electronics
An Introduction
Fundamentals of Electrical Circuits
The study of electric circuits is concerned with
The flow of electric charge,
Current
And the development of electric potential,
Potential, Voltage



Atomic Structure
All matter consists of
atoms, made up from
Protons, Neutrons and
Electrons
Protons and Neutrons combine
to form the nucleus of the atom
The nucleus is orbited by
electrons
Atomic Charge 1
The Proton has unit positive
charge; +1

The Neutron has no
charge; 0

The Electron has unit
negative charge; -1

Atomic Charge 2
An atom, or molecule, is
considered to be uncharged
when the number of
electrons equals the
number of protons.

In almost every case you will meet
Charge cannot be destroyed.
Charge can be neutralised where the influence of
positive and negative charge balance each other out

Charge and electric field
If we have two charges
separated in space
A force exists between the
charges
q
1

q
2

Magnitude of force depends on
the size of the charges q
1
and q
2
Their separation r
Fundamental constant

2
2 1
0
r
q q
4
1
F
tc
=
Charge and electric field
If the two charges have the same polarity
Force is repulsive tries to move charges
apart
If the two charges have opposite polarity
Force is attractive, tries to move charges
closer together
2
2 1
0
12 12
r
q q
4
1
r

F
tc
=
q
1

q
2

Using Vector notation
2
2 1
0
21 21
r
q q
4
1
r

F
tc
=
12 21
r

=
Note
Therefore
12 21
F F =
The Unit of Charge
The S.I. unit of electric charge, the coulomb, is named after
the French scientist and engineer Charles Augustin de Coulomb
The symbol of charge is C.
The fundamental unit for charge (smallest
measureable) is that of the electron;
C 10 602 1
19
=
e
q
electric field and potential
Assume q
1
is fixed in space and q
1 and
q
2
have the same polarity

q
1

q
2

If we move q
2
closer to q
1
we need to apply a force and
we will do work moving the charge
Increasing its potential energy
If we allow the force F
12
to move the charge q
2
further
from q
1
the charge will do work
Decreasing its potential energy
We describe the potential energy of the charge in terms
of voltage (potential difference)

F
12

The Unit of Voltage
The fundamental unit for voltage is the Volt it is defined as:
A potential difference of 1 volt exists between two points if 1
joule of work is done moving 1 coulomb of charge between
the points
-1
C J 1 V = 1
Current
If we have a difference in voltage between two points
Charge will tend to move between the points.
We refer to this movement of charge as a current
The electric current is the rate at which charge is transferred, and
it is represented by the symbol i. For example, if Q units of charge
move between two points in t seconds, then the current between
these points is
t
i
Q
=
The S.I. symbol for current is A. its unit is the amp
-1
s C 1 A 1 =
Example 1
A charge of 5 C passes a given point every second.
Determine the current.
?
Q
= =
t
i
A 5
s 1
C 5 Q
= = =
t
i
Example 2
If 75.10
18
electrons pass a given point each second, determine
the current this represents. Find the total charge transfer which
takes place in 5 seconds.

C 10 602 1
19
=
e
q
1 - 1 - 18 19
s C 12 s 10 . 75 . C 10 . 602 1
s
Q
~ =

A 12 I =
C 60 Q seconds 5 In
total
=
Work or Energy
In moving charge through a potential difference, work is done.
These quantities are related by the following expression.
W = Q.V
work = charge . potential difference
work or energy charge . potential difference

(J, joules) (C, coulombs) (V, volts)
E = Q.V
Example 3
Determine the work done in moving a charge of 2 C through a
potential of 10 V.

W = Q.V W = Q.V = 2 C . 10 V = 20 J
The Nature of the Current
Current has been defined as the
movement of charge.

However, as charge can have either
positive or negative polarity we have to be
careful in defining the polarity of current.

For current to exist, two conditions are
necessary

We need a potential or voltage source,
battery.

We require a current path or an
electrical circuit.



+
_ V
I
Lamp
Conditions for Current
We need a potential or voltage source, battery.

We require a current path or an electrical circuit.


For current to exist, two conditions are necessary
+
_ V
I
Lamp
Which Current Direction?
Current within the closed circuit causes the lamp to illuminate. But
which direction does current follow?

Is the direction I
1
or I
2
?

+
_
V
I
1
I
2
Lamp
The Polarity of Current
The American statesman, inventor and scientist Benjamin
Franklin developed a theory in 1746 that proposed that
current was the result of the flow of positive charge.
This proposition was adopted by the engineering
fraternity and worked successfully for the following 150
years.
The experimental work of the English physicist Joseph John
Thompson led to the discovery of the electron in 1897. This
demonstrated that current was the flow of negatively charged
electrons
Current Direction?
The Franklin model for current is today referred to as Conventional
current, I
1
. This continues to be in daily use by engineers.

The actual current, I
2
, is known as electron flow and is employed
mainly by physicists and chemists.

+
_ V
I
1
I
2
Lamp
Status Quo

Essentially the reason for maintaining this status quo, in the
engineering world, can be attributed to the fact that either electron
current or conventional current can be considered to do the same
work.

In calculating the work done, the polarity of the current is not a
consideration, as energy is a scalar quantity.

From now on, in order to comply with the traditions of the last 260
years we will always assume that current will flow from the positive
terminal to the negative terminal.

Defining Potential differences
If we have a component
connecting two points A and B
in our circuit
We define the potential
difference across the
components V
AB
as:
A
B
A B AB
V V V =
What we are saying here is that our change in potential
energy
is equal to
our final potential energy minus our original potential energy
Potential Differences around a loop
Consider a circuit where we
have 4 components forming a
closed loop
What happens when we add
the changes of potential across
the components together
A
B
C
D
0
) V V ( ) V V ( ) V V ( ) V V (
V V V V V
D A C D B C A B
DA CD BC AB Sum
=
+ + + =
+ + + =
The sum of voltages around a closed loop must be zero
This comes from the requirement for energy to be conserved
Lets Consider currents
If we have a point A in our
circuit which is connected to
points B, C and D by
components
By definition
we cannot destroy charge at
point A under steady state
(DC) conditions
Therefore the sum of the
currents flowing into A must
equal Zero


A
B
C
D
0 I I I
DA CA BA
= + +
KIRCHHOFF'S LAWS
These two laws
The Voltage Law K.V.L.
The sum of the potential differences round a closed
loop in a circuit is equal to zero
The Current Law K.C.L
The sum of the currents at a node in a circuit is
equal to zero.
Form the basis of circuit Analysis
Current Flow in Materials
In electrical terms, materials are classified as having one of the
following properties.
Conductors: materials which permit the free movement of
electrons from atom to atom
Semiconductors: materials which permit the free movement
of electrons from atom to atom only under certain conditions

Insulators: materials which do not permit the movement of
electrons from atom to atom
As you would expect conductors are used to permit the flow of
current.
Quality of Current Flow
What determines whether a material is a good or bad conductor? The resistance to the flow of current through a conductor is the
figure of merit which is used to compare good and bad
conductors
On the microscopic scale the resistance of a material depends
upon the atomic structure of its constituent atoms.
On the macroscopic scale the resistance of a conductor
depends upon the physical dimensions of the conductor and
on a material specific constant known as resistivity.
The resistance of a conductor increases with the length of the
conductor and decreases as the area of the conductor increases.
Ohms Law
Experimental observations of the
behaviour of current
In different materials
As voltage was varied
Showed that there was often a
linear relationship between
the measured current
The applied voltage.

The gradients of the measured
graphs depended on the
material
Experimental geometry


C
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
A
)

Voltage (V)
Material 1
Material 2
Material 3
This Lead to Ohms Law
Ohms law state that
the current passing through a
conductor is directly proportional to
the voltage across the conductor
and inversely proportional to the
resistance of the conductor.

The resistance depends on the
material and its geometry
Resistance increases linearly with
conductor length l
Resistance decreases linearly
with cross sectional area A
the resistivity depends on the
conductor material


R
V
I =
A
l
R =
The SI unit of resistance is the ohm
Its symbol is O (V/A)
Example 4
Calculate the resistance of 1 km of copper wire of 1 mm
diameter. The resistivity of copper is 1 68. 10
-8
Om.
( )
2 6 -
2
3 - 2
m 10 . 78 0
4
m 10
4
d
A = = = t t
1 km
1 mm
d =
m 10 . 68 1 m, 10 L
8
cu
3
O = =

O =

O
=

22
m 10 78. 0
m 10 . m 10 . 68 1
R
2 6 -
3 8
A
L
R
cu

=
Resistivities of Materials
Different materials have different resistivities

Different purities of the sane material will have different
resistivities e.g.
cu
at 99% purity is different to that at 99 9%
purity

Most electrical conductors are made from copper. If weight is a
constraint, aluminium is used

Gold is often used to make electrical contacts in semiconductors
and carbon is used in different forms to make resistors

Element Symbol
Resistivity
(O cm)
Copper Cu 1 68
Iron Fe 10 1
Aluminium Al 2 67
Carbon C 1375
Gold Au 2 2
Silver Ag 1 63
Resistors in Circuits
A resistor is a circuit component which
obeys Ohms Law
In circuits it dissipates electrical power
Remember from our early discussions the
relationship between energy charge and
potential
Power is the rate at which energy is
produced so:

Using Ohms law we can write

QV E=
VI
dt
dQ
V
dt
dE
P = = =
R
V
R
V
V VI P
R I I IR VI P
2
2
= = =
= = =
Resistors in series or parallel
We can connect components in a circuit in two ways
Series
Common Current
flows through each
components in turn
Parallel
Common voltage
across each
component
R
1

R
2

I
V
I
2

V
I
I
1

R
1
R
2

Analysis of resistors in series
We are interested in the
relationship between Voltage
and Current in a series resistors


KVL allows us to state:

Using Ohms law gives

Therefore the resistors
connected in series have an
equivalent resistance equal to
sum of the individual
resistances
2 1
V V V + =
R
1

R
2

I
V
V
1

V
2

) R R ( I IR IR V
2 1 2 1
+ = + =
2 1 Series
R R R + =
Analysis of resistors in parallel
Again we are interested in the
relationship between Voltage
and Current in parallel resistors




KCL allows us to state for node
A:

Using Ohms law gives

Therefore the resistors
connected in parallel have an
equivalent resistance given by

V
I
I
1

R
1
R
2

I
2

A
2 1
I I I + =
2 1 Parallel
R
V
R
V
R
V
+ =
2 1
2 1
Parallel
2 1 Parallel
R R
R R
R
R
1
R
1
R
1
+
=
+ =
Example 5
Calculate the total current and power dissipated in two 20O
resistors if they are connected across a 100 V source
1. In Series
2. In Parallel
W 250 5 . 2 100 VI P = = =
In Series
Equivalent R

Current


Power
A 5 . 2
40
100
R
V
I
Eq
= = =
O = + = 40 R R R
2 1 Eq

In Parallel
Equivalent R




Current


Power

O = =
= + = + =
10
2
20
R
20
2
20
1
20
1
R
1
R
1
R
1
Eq
2 1 Eq
A 10
10
100
R
V
I
Eq
= = =
W 1000 10 100 VI P = = =
Potential Divider
Series resistors can be used to
set up a potential divider
Frequently used when we want
to measure a large voltage


In BC AB
I I I = =
A
B
C
V
In

V
Out

I
Out

I
In

Assuming
Implies
In Out
I I <<
R
1

R
2

1 In 1 BC Out
R I R I V = =
) R R ( I V V V
2 1 In BC AB In
+ = + =
Therefore
) R R (
R
) R R ( I
R I
V
V
2 1
2
2 1 In
2 In
In
Out
+
=
+
=