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s. Basic computer operations and functional units. Types of Computers- based on data handling technology, purpose and size Applications of computers. Data Representation. Binary number system, conversion from binary to decimal and vice versa, Computer Codes- BCD, EBCD, ASCII, ISCII, Unicode.
What Is a Computer?
Electronic device operating under the control of instructions stored in its own memory Accepts data
Raw facts, figures, and symbols
1671: first calculator for multiplication by Baron Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz of Germany
1822: Difference machine by Charles Babbage to produce mathematical and Statistical tables 1880: keyboard machines in US, punched cards by Herman Hollerith
Stages of evolution 1937-44: Mark I Computer-ASCC (Automatic Sequence Controlled Computer) 1939-42-ABC (Atanasoff-Berry Computer) 1943-46: ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator And Calculator) 1946-52: EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer) 1947-49: EDSAC (Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator) 1948: Manchester Mark I 1951:UNIVAC I (Universal Automatic Computer)
Computer Generations
Key hardware technologies ICs with ULSI technology; larger capacity main memory; larger capacity hard disks with RAID support; portable storage: optical disks, pen drives Key Software technologies Microkernel-based operating systems; multithreading operating systems; parallel processing distributed computing systems; World Wide Web; internetbased applications; multimedia applications; more complex supercomputing applications; artificial intelligence
Key Characteristics more powerful, cheaper, reliable, and easier to use desktop machines; Portable computers; notebook computers; workstations; powerful servers; very powerful supercomputers; totally general purpose machines; easier to produce commercially; easier to upgrade; rapid software development possible Some representative systems IBM notebooks, Pentium PCs, SUN Workstations, IBM SP12, SGI Origin 2000, PARAM 10000, Xybernaut Corps personal wearable computer: POMA
Technology
1965: Moores law [Gordon Moore] Computational power doubles every 18 months Speed of Microprocessors and Size of Main Memory & Hard Disk Double Every 18 Months Drives functionality, performance, cost Corollary to Moores Law: Cost halves every two years
CHARACTERISTICS OF A COMPUTER
1. Automatic. Computers are automatic machines because once started on a job, they carry on until the job is finished, normally without any human assistance. However, computers being machines cannot start themselves. They have to be instructed. The set of instructions is called a computer program. 2. Speed. Speed refers to the amount of time a computer takes in accomplishing a task or completing an operation. Computers are capable of performing 100 million calculations per second. (MIPS- Million Instructions Per Second).
3. Accuracy. Accuracy refers to the degree of exactness with which computations are made and operations are performed. The accuracy of a computer is consistently high. If the input data entering the computer are correct and if the program of instructions is reliable, then computer generally will produce accurate output. Errors may occur due to bad programming, erroneous data and deviations from procedures which are in fact the errors caused by human beings. Errors attributable to hardware are normally detected and corrected by the computer system itself. 4. Diligence. Unlike human beings, a computer is free from monotony, tiredness, lack of concentration, etc., and hence can work for hours together without creating any error and without grumbling.
5. Versatility. Versatility refers to the ability of computers to perform a variety of tasks simple as well as complex. Computers are versatile unless designed for a specific application. A general purpose computer is capable of being used in any area of application, viz., business, scientific, statistical, technological, communications, etc.
6. Reliability Reliability refers to the ability with which the computers remain functional to serve the user. Computer systems are well-adapted to perform repetitive operations. They are immune to tiredness, boredom or fatigue. 6. Storage It refers to the amount of data a computer system can store and access. A computer can store and recall any amount of information because of its secondary storage capability. Every piece of information can be retained as long as desired by the user and can be recalled as and when required.
ADVANTAGES OF A COMPUTER
The advantages of the computers can be judged from the various characteristics like, High Speed, Accuracy, Diligence, Versatility, Power of remembering, storage, mentioned in its characteristics.
LIMITATION OF A COMPUTER
1. Lack of Common Sense: Computer systems as on date do not possess any common sense because no fool proof algorithm has been designed to program Common sense. Computers work according to a stored program(s). 2. Zero IQ. Computers are dumb devices with zero Intelligence Quotient. They possess no intelligence of their own. They cannot visualize and think what exactly to do under a particular situation, unless they have been programmed to tackle that situation.
3. Lack of Decision making Computers cannot take decisions on their own unless programmed for it. If a computer has not been programmed for a particular decision situation, it will not take decision due to lack of wisdom and evaluating faculties. 4. No Feelings Computers are devoid of emotions. They have no feelings and no instincts because they are machines.
Application of Computers
Education, Finance, Government, Healthcare, Science, Publishing, Travel, Manufacturing
Functional units
Processor/Central Processing Unit
ALU, CU and Internal processor memory
A Computer has
Input
Processor
Output
Storage
1. Processor/Central Processing Unit The electronic component that interprets and carries out the basic instructions that operate the computer 2. Input Unit Accepts instructions and data 3. Output Unit communicates result to the user 4. Storage Unit Stores temporary and final results
Subsystems of CPU
1. Control unit
Directs computer system to carry out, or execute, stored program instructions Directs flow between memory and ALU Directs flow between CPU and I/O devices Repeats 4 basic operations
Fetch instruction Decode instruction Execute instruction Store results
3. Internal Processor memory 1. Cache Memory High speed, expensive piece of memory, which is used to speed up memory retrieval process CPU comes with a small amount of cache compared main memory due to its higher cost Computer uses logic to determine most frequently accessed data and keeps them in cache. Made from high speed static RAM that reduces the access time of the data
Cache Memory
Categorised into three levels: L1 Cache , L2 Cache and L3 Cache L1 Cache:
Primary Cache, closest to the processor Size: 8 to 64 KB or more Very fast, runs at the speed of the processor since it is integrated into it
L2 Cache:
Larger but slower Recent accesses not picked by L1 Cache Size: 64 KB to 2 MB Also found on CPU
L3 Cache:
Extra cache built into motherboard between the processor and main memory Speeds up processing operations, reducing time gap b/w request and retrieving of data and instructions much more quickly than main memory Size: 3 MB or more
Subsystems of CPU
2. Registers
Special purpose, high speed temporary memory units for holding data, instructions, addresses, and intermediate results of calculations Working memory of CPU, hold the information that CPU is currently working on
Register Name Program Counter Instruction Register Memory address Register Memory Buffer Register Data Register Function Keeps track of next instruction to be executed Holds the instruction to be decoded by CU Holds address of next location in memory to be accessed Store data either coming to CPU or data being transferred by CPU Storing operands and other data
Memory
Electronic holding place for instructions & data where the computers processor can reach quickly. Holds intermediate results during course of calculations and provides data as and when required
1. Internal processor memory 2. Primary memory 3. Secondary memory
1. Internal Processor memory: fastest, most expensive, compensate speed gap between primary memory and processor
1. Cache 2. Special registers
Primary Memory
Processes or directly stores and retrieves data from the secondary memory Internal storage called primary memory or main memory CPU can access the main memory in random manner, i.e., any location to read information from it or store information in it Primary Memory is implemented by two types of memory technologies, viz., RAM and ROM
Primary Memory
Dynamic RAM Holds data in dynamic manner with the help of refresh circuitry Unstable: keeps refreshing the content of each memory cell by reading it several hundred times per second to maintain the data Used for systems main memory because its cheap & small Static RAM Retains contents as long as power is provided to the memory chips Does not need to be refreshed periodically Fast but more expensive than DRAM Used as cache memory due to its high speed
EPROM-Erasable PROM Can be erased & reprogrammed Entire chip can be erased by exposing to UV light, also called UVEPROM More expensive than PROM Used in software development and testing by R&D personnel EEPROM-Electrically EPROM Can be erased by electrical charge, one byte at a time Flexible, easier to alter than UVEPROM but slow Used to store programmable instructions in peripheral devices
Flash ROM
constantly powered non-volatile memory that can be erased and reprogrammed in blocks variation of EEPROM used to hold control code s.a. BIOS Also used in digital cellular phones, MP3 players, modems, digital camera, etc.
Virtual memory
Hard disk used as an extension of RAM Data swapped between HD and RAM as needed by the processor Imaginary memory supported by OS
3. Secondary Memory
Auxiliary memory, back up storage for software program & data Hard disk, magnetic disk, magnetic tapes, floppy disks, CDROM, DVDROM, Pen drives etc Less expensive as compared to primary memory Much larger storage capacity than primary memory Not directly accessible by processor, primary memory has a faster access time as compared to secondary memory Data, instructions stored are permanent in nature; can be removed only if user wants it.
Categories of Computers
Categories of Computers
1. According to Technology Analog Computers Digital computers Hybrid Computers 2. According to Purpose Special Purpose Computer Scientific Computers Business Computers General purpose computer
3. According to Size
Super Computer Main Frame Computer Mini Computer Micro Computer Personal Computers (PCs) Work Stations Portable computers- Notebook, Netbook Handheld- Personal Digital Assistants
According to Technology.
Analog Computers
Principle of measurement Measure continuous physical magnitudes, such as pressure, voltage, temperature etc. Used for scientific & engineering purpose Give approximate results because quantities vary continuously Accuracy is less though very fast Digital computers Operates with information, numerical or otherwise represented in a digital form Accepts data (text, sound, graphic & video) through various input devices, converts data into electronic pulses, performs arithmetic and logical operations, processing and give results. More accurate and faster than analog computers
According to Technology.
Hybrid Computers These computers incorporate the technology of both, Analog and Digital computers Measuring feature of an analog computer and computational feature of a digital computer Used for scientific, engineering, industrial applications
According to Purpose
General purpose computer
Perform a variety of tasks Store a number of programs for various applications ranging from business, scientific, educational, social and other applications Though versatile, they lack speed & efficiency
Scientific Computers
Designed to best suited for large mathematical calculations.
Business Computers
These will lack or take more time in scientific calculation, but be fully equipped to produce well layout business reports.
According to Size
Super Computer
fastest computing devices ever invented Speed measured in teraflops (1012 FLoating-point Operations Per Sec). Use Multi processing and parallel processing consist of thousands of integrated microprocessors, main memory of around 16 GB and secondary memory 1000 GB e.g., PARAM 10000, PACE, CRAY, Cyber, IBM Blue Gene IBMs Blue Gene installed at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL) in California operates at 360 teraflops, used to study cosmology and the behaviour of stellar binary pairs, laser-plasma interactions, and the behaviour and aging of high explosives.
According to Size
Main Frame Computer
processes several millions of instructions per second bigger & more expensive than workstations Used in banks and insurance cos., processing on-line transactions, ERP, Survey etc. Large disks to store terabytes of data, transfer data from disk to main memory at several hundred MB per sec, process 100 million transactions per sec. Proprietary OS e.g., IBMs System/390, VAX 8000, CDC 6600
According to Size
Mini Computer
middle sized special purpose computers used in transaction processing applications as interface between main frame and WAN, Serves as a centralised storehouse for a cluster of workstations or as a network server Usually multi-user systems, used in industries, research organisations, colleges & universities work well with distributed data processing, supports 4 to 200 simultaneous users VAX 7500, IBM (8000 series), PDP-11.
According to Size
Work Stations
desktop machines having a powerful processor than a micro (10 times speedier than PC) Main memory: several GBs HD: 100s of GB support multi-user environment Operating System: UNIX or its derivatives like AIX (IBM), Solaris (SUN), HP-UX (HP) a sophisticated screen display featuring a high resolution colour graphics, large video screens, inbuilt h/w to connect to LAN meet computing requirements of engineers, architects Business & industry usage for executing numeric, graphic intensive multimedia applications s.a. CAD, simulation of complex systems Also called super micros. e.g. DEC, IBM, Sun Workstations
According to Size
Micro Computer
Small, low cost digital computer most familiar kind of computers Originally designed for single user, when networked together can serve more than one user Many uses these include: desktop, laptop, PDAs
According to Role
Server Large computer, manages shared resources and provides services to clients specific purpose such as high performance numerical computing (called compute server), web page hosting, database store, printing, etc. Interactive large screens not necessary as in case of workstations Compute server: high performance processors, large main memory Database server: large on-line disk storage (100s of GB) Print server: support several high speed printers May be a workstation, mainframe or even a super computer
According to Role
Client A single user PC or workstation that provides a highly user friendly interface to the end user Runs client processes which sends service request to server Network Interconnects all the clients and servers of the client-server computing environment
Data Representation
Binary number system & its relevance Conversion of numbers among Binary Octal
Hexadecimal
Decimal Binary representation of integers and real numbers
DATA REPRESENTATION
Number Systems: Positional, Non Positional (Roman) Positional: Decimal (base 10), Binary-2, Octal-8, Hexadecimal-16 BINARY NUMBER SYSTEM In binary number system, there are only two states: 0 and 1. These are also called binary digits or bits. The use of binary number system in digital computers has made the design of digital computers very simple. All information is represented using zeros and ones. 0 and 1 in binary number system are used to represent decimal numbers 0 and 1, respectively.
COMPUTER CODES
Commonly used coding systems: BCD, ASCII, EBCDIC, Unicode, etc. 1. Binary-coded decimal (BCD) is a numeral system used in computing and in electronics systems. In BCD, numbers are represented as a sequence of decimal digits in which each digit is represented by four bits:
Digit 0 1 bits 0000 0001 Digit 2 3 bits 0010 0011 Digit 4 5 bits 0100 0101 Digit 6 7 bits 0110 0111 Digit 8 9 bits 1000 1001
2. EBCDIC (Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code) EBCDIC was devised in the 1963-1964 by IBM It is an 8-bit character encoding used on IBM mainframes and AS/400s. It is descended from punched cards and the corresponding six bit binary-coded decimal code that most of IBM's computer peripherals of the late 1950s and early 1960s used. Single byte EBCDIC takes up eight bits, which are divided in two pieces. The first four bits are called the zone and represent the category of the character, the last four bits are the called the digit and identify the specific character. It was created to extend the Binary Coded Decimal that existed at the time.
3. AMERICAN STANDARD CODE FOR INFORMATION INTERCHANGE (ASCII) ASCII (generally pronounced ski), is a character set and a character encoding based on the Roman alphabet as used in modern English and other Western European languages. Most commonly used by computers and other communication equipment to represent text and by control devices that work with text. ASCII specifies a correspondence between digital bit patterns and the symbols/glyphs of a written language, thus allowing digital devices to communicate with each other and to process, store, and communicate character-oriented information. ASCII is, strictly, a seven-bit code, meaning that it uses the bit patterns representable with seven binary digits (a range of 0 to 127 decimal) to represent character information. Later ASII-8 was developed by IBM which is 8-bit code with 256 characters.
ASCII
ASCII was first published as a standard in 1968 by the American Standards Association (ASA), which later became ANSI (American National Standards Institute). There are many variations of ASCII. The first thirty-two codes (numbers 0-31 decimal) in ASCII are reserved for control characters: codes that were not originally intended to carry information, but rather to control devices (such as printers) that make use of ASCII. For example, character 10 represents the "line feed" function (which causes a printer to advance its paper), and character 27 represents the "escape" key found on the top left of common keyboards. Code 127 (all seven bits on) is another special character known as "delete". Code 32 is the "space" character, denoting the space between words, which is produced by the large space bar of a keyboard. Codes 33 to 126 are called the printable characters, which represent letters, digits, punctuation marks, and a few miscellaneous symbols.
Unicode
Unicode Standard replaced ASCII Developed by Unicode Consortium in 1991 Provides unique code for every character Supports international languages Irrespective of platform, program, language Adopted by Apple, HP, IBM, Microsoft, Oracle, SAP, Sybase, etc.
Liveware: human beings that interact with the computers; system analysts, programmers and operators Firmware: software embedded in a hardware device that allows reading & executing the software but does not allow modification e.g., BIOS in a ROM
Hardware Components
What is an input device? Hardware used to enter data and instructions What is an output device? Hardware that conveys information to one or more people What is storage? Holds data, instructions, and information for future use Storage media Physical material on which data, instructions, and information are stored Storage device Records and retrieves items to and from storage media
Software
Software Categories: 1. System Software
1. System Management Program
1. Operating System 2. Device Drivers 3. System Utilities
2. Application Software
System Software Low level programs that interact with computer at low level Provide basic non-task specific functions Control the operations & extend processing capability of computer system
Application Software
Application software: 1. Word-Processing Software 2. Spreadsheet Software 3. Database Software 4. Graphics Software 5. Personal Assistance Software 6. Education Software 7. Entertainment software
Application software: a set of one or more programs designed to solve a specific problem or do a specific task. e.g. inventory management, preparation of tax return, banking, hospital administration, insurance. 1. Word-Processing Software enables the user to create, edit, view, format, store, retrieve and print documents (written material such as letters, reports, books, etc.) on a computer system. 2. Spreadsheet Software a numeric data analysis tool that allows user to create a kind of computerized ledger. can hold large information and perform calculation just like calculator.
3. Database Software a set of one or more programs that enables users to create a database, maintain it (add, delete and update its records), organize its data in desired fashion and to selectively retrieve useful information from it. 4. Graphics Software used for creating, editing, viewing, storing, retrieving and printing designs, drawings, pictures, graphs and anything else that can be drawn in the traditional manner. 5. Personal Assistance Software storing and retrieving personal information, planning and managing schedules, contacts, financial and inventory of important items
6. Education Software teaching and learning tool Black-board, on-line examinations, Authoring tools, Vocabulary Builder, Mathematics, Geometry, etc 7. Entertainment software Video games, interactive television, game partner, etc.
System Software
System Development Programs Associated with development of Computer program Allow programmers to write & construct programs that OS can execute Include:
1. 2. 3. 4. Programming Languages Language processors Linkers Loader
Operating System
An operating system is a collection of programs that supervises all the operations of a computer manages resources of computer system, s.a. memory, processor, & input/output devices keeps track of status of each resource & decides who will have a control over computer resources, for how long & when acts as an interface between users & hardware of a computer system called platform, coordinates all activities among computer hardware resources booting the system: OS loaded from hard disk or floppy disk
Operating System
An operating system is made up of 3 elements: 1. Control programs: provide automatic control of the resources of a computer, like I/O, scheduling, communicating with the operator, and handling interrupts. 2. Processing programs: called (or invoked) as required by the control programs, e.g. language processors such as compilers and interpreters. 3. Data management programs: control the organisation and access of data used by application programs.
Types of OS
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Multiprogramming OS Multitasking OS Multiprocessing OS Multithreading OS Multiuser OS Real time OS
Multiprogramming Operating System interleaved execution of two or more different and independent programs by same computer processor executes each program for a very short interval of time, say, about 150 milliseconds, & then executes the next program in the queue All programs residing in main memory will be in one of the 3 states: running (using CPU), blocked (I/O operation being done) & ready (waiting for CPU) even though many programs may reside in the computer's memory at the same time, only one program is being executed (running state) at any given time.
Multitasking operating system supports two or more active processes simultaneously in a single user system. Multiprogramming operating system supports multiple concurrent process & allows the instruction and data from two or more separate processes to reside in primary memory simultaneously. Multiprogramming implies multiprocessing or multitasking operation, but multitasking does not imply multiprogramming.
Multi threading OS
Basic unit of CPU utilization is a thread, also called light weight process Each thread of a process share the same address space, same global variables, same set of OS resource Resource sharing is more efficient, lesser overheads are involved. At a particular time thread can be in one of 4 states: running, blocked, ready or terminated
allows simultaneous access to a computer system through two or more terminals associated with multiprogramming e.g., dedicated transaction processing system such as railway reservation system with hundreds of terminals under control of a single program
Device Drivers
Responsible for proper functioning of devices Every hardware has a driver program for support, most OS include various h/w drivers Acts as translator b/w device & programs that use device Not independent programs, assist & are assisted by the OS for proper functioning of device
Utility Programs performs a maintenance tasks, usually related to managing system resources e.g. managing disk drive, printer and other devices Support, enhance, expand & secure existing programs & data in computer system Bundled along with OS
Utility Programs Most common utilities include: 1. Disk formatting: formatting hard disk in tracks, sectors for orderly sorting of data 2. Disk defragmenter: reorganizing files in a sequential order & release unused space so that programs run faster 3. Data Compression: squeeze out slack space generated by formatting schemes 4. Back up utility: copies selected files or entire hard disk into another storage medium 5. Data Recovery: recover files or information that is accidentally deleted 6. Disc scanner: Scanning the computer for unnecessary files such as virus and errors
differentiate between different types of language giving relative advantages and disadvantages Language processors assembler, compiler, interpreter distinguish between compiler and interpreter
Programming languages
Interface of programmer with a computer Series of commands which are used in development of s/w Classification 1. Machine language First generation language Understood by computer w/o using translation program Written as strings of binary 1s & 0s Converted immediately by computer circuitry into electrical signals required to execute them Each model of computer has unique machine language Advantages: fast execution of programs, no translation required Used for complex applications s.a. Space control system, nuclear reactors, chemical processing Disadvantages: machine dependent, complex language, difficult to read & understand, error prone, difficult to modify
1. Assembly language Allows instructions & storage locations to be represented by mnemonics e.g. ADD, SUB, MLT, etc Low level language, second generation language, developed by IBM in 1950s Advantages: easier to understand & use, easier to locate & correct errors, easier to modify Limitations: machine dependent, knowledge of h/w required, machine level coding 2. High level language Problem oriented instead of machine based English words & math notation 3GL (COBOL, FORTRAN, BASIC, C), 4GL (SQL, QBE), 5GL(LISP, ProLog) Advantages: readability, machine independent, easy debugging, easy documentation, faster & low cost development of programs Disadvantages: poor control on h/w, no need for h/w knowledge, less efficient, more computation time
Programming Language processors Transform instructions prepared by programmers using convenient programming language into a form that can be interpreted & executed by a computer system three categories: 1. Assembler Converts assembly language program into its equivalent machine language program
Programming Language processors 2. Compiler Converts the entire source program into object code before program is executed Reports all errors of programs along with line numbers, then program is recompiled Object program made available & compiler is no longer required memory e.g. FORTRAN, C, JAVA compilers
Programming Language processors 3. Interpreter Translate one source instruction into object code & computer immediately executes that instruction before moving on to translate next instruction Longer time for complete execution than compiled program Error can be traced exactly Unnecessary usage of memory, interpreter must be always present in the memory e.g. BASIC, LISP are interpreted language
Compiler Separate object code provided Translation Converts entire process prog into machine code at one go Debugging Slow debugging Implementation Complex programs Execution More memory required to execute Faster execution as object file saved
Interpreter No object code file Translates source code line wise Debugging easier Easier to write, less complex prog Less memory required for execution slow execution as each statement translated
Linker Links compiled module & data files to create an executable program Loader Brings an executable file (code of program) residing on disk into memory for execution Automatically invoked during program run
Meaning and Need of an efficient information System- facilitate acquisition , transformation &
distribution of efficient information, improve decision making, performance, productivity and enhance profitability,
Expert Systems
aim at formalizing expertise and make it available for repetitive type of business decisions. use artificial intelligence tools to generate knowledge out of the information, existing theories, belief and experiences of managers in various business activities. they help human experts perform their job more effectively and replicate the expertise at various locations in the business enterprise.
MIDDLE
LOWER
TPS
Information requirement for Planning, Coordination, and control for various level in Business, Industry Basic of data arrangement and Access
Data arrangement and access for specific information needs Data access and their usage
Information requirement
Functions of organisation Planning Information requirement Strategic Tactical Operational Information system required ESS DSS, MIS TPS