DAY 1

TOPICS

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INRODUCTION HISTORY BASICS

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INRODUCTION:

Ultrasonic Testing (UT) uses high frequency sound energy to conduct examinations and make measurements. Ultrasonic inspection can be used for flaw detection/evaluation, dimensional measurements, material characterization, and 5/17/12 22 more.

The sound energy is introduced and propagates through the materials in the form of waves. When there is a discontinuity (such as a crack) in the wave path, part of the energy will be reflected back from the flaw surface. The reflected wave signal is transformed into electrical 33 signal by 5/17/12

See below fig

I P B E

plat e

delamination

10

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Ultrasonic Inspection is a very useful and versatile NDT method. Some of the advantages of ultrasonic inspection that are often cited include:

It is sensitive to both surface and subsurface discontinuities. The depth of penetration for flaw detection or measurement is superior to other NDT methods.
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It is high accuracy in determining reflector position and estimating size and shape. Minimal part preparation required. Electronic equipment provides instantaneous results. Detailed images can be produced with automated systems.
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As with all NDT methods, ultrasonic inspection also has its limitations, which include:

Surface must be accessible to transmit ultrasound. Skill and training is more extensive than with some other methods.
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Materials that are rough, irregular in shape, very small, exceptionally thin or not homogeneous are difficult to inspect. Cast iron and other coarse grained materials are difficult to inspect due to low sound transmission and high signal noise. Linear defects oriented parallel to the sound beam may go undetected. Reference standards are required for both equipment calibration, and characterization of flaws.
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Applications:

Ultrasonic inspection is used for quality control and materials inspection in all major industries. Ultrasonic inspection is used for finding flaws in production of metallic and composite materials. It is used in fabrication of structures such as airframes, piping and pressure vessels, ships, motor vehicles, machinery 5/17/12 , jet engines and submarines. 99

In-service ultrasonic inspection for preventive maintenance is used for detecting the impending failure of rails, rolling-stock axils, mill rolls, mining equipment and nuclear systems. And also used for thickness measurement in refinery and chemical pressure vessels And many more in medical , rail track inspection, liquid height measurements, 5/17/12 1010

HISTORY:

UT is the discovery of Curie the brothers in 1880 that the quartz crystal cut in a certain way produces an electric potential subjected to pressure. In 1881 Lippmann theorized that the effect might work in reverse.

In 1929 Russian physicist sokolov experimented with the techniques of passing the vibration to metals to find 5/17/12 flaws. 1111 the

Prior to World War II, sonar, the technique of sending sound waves through water and observing the returning echoes to characterize submerged objects, inspired early ultrasound investigators to explore ways to apply the concept to medical diagnosis. in 1931, obtained a patent for using ultrasonic waves, using two transducers to detect flaws in solids. Firestone (1940) and Simons (1945) developed pulsed ultrasonic testing using a pulse-echo technique.
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Shortly after the close of World War II, researchers in Japan began to explore medical diagnostic capabilities of ultrasound. The first ultrasonic instruments used an A-mode presentation with blips on an oscilloscope screen. That was followed by a B-mode presentation with a two dimensional, gray scale imaging. Japan was also the first country to apply Doppler ultrasound, an application of ultrasound that detects internal moving objects such as blood coursing through the heart for cardiovascular investigation. 5/17/12 1313

BASICS:

WHAT IS ULTRASONIC:

It is a High frequency Sound. We generate the Ultrasonic Sound sound by using piezo electric crystals
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What is sound, frequency

Sound is a mechanical vibration (oscillation) of particles in a medium. Sound travels in a medium(where particles are present) but not in vacuum. Particles are oscillating and comes in contact with another particles and form a wave form.
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Examples of oscillation
ball on a spring pendulum rotating earth

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Oscillatio n

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In vibratory motion the motion in which a body moves to and fro repeatedly in a fixed interval of time about a fixed point is called mean position. Mean position is also called equilibrium position or zero position.

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The deviation of a vibrating or oscillating body from the mean position of oscillation with time is called displacement.

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Atomic structures ga s liqui d soli d

low density weak bonding forces

medium density medium bonding forces

high density strong bonding forces crystallographic structure

2121

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Understanding wave propagation:

Ball = atom

Spring = elastic bonding force

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sta rt o osc f illa tion

distance travelled
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Frequency:

Number of oscillations for second Its measured in Hertz(Hz)

1 OSCILATION OSILATIONS

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In 1second 1 oscillation so frequency 1 Hz oscillation frequency 2 Hz

In 1 second 2

FREQUENCY
1sec frequency 1 cycle=1Hz 1sec> 2cycles=2Hz

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One vibration in one second is called One Hertz Ten vibration in one second is called Ten Hertz One thousand vibrations in one second is called One Kilohertz( kHz) One million vibrations in one second is called One Megahertz ( MHz)

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The distance travelled by a wave at one complete cycle is called wave length. Wave length is denoted by lambda().

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The minimum time taken to complete one complete vibration is called time period. Time period is denoted by T.

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The force which tends the vibrating particles towards its mean position is called restoring force of vibrating particles.

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DISPLACEMENT()

VELOCITY = (mts/sec)

_______________ TIME PERIOD(T) VELOCITY= *F

WHERE

FREQUENCY (F) =
3030

1/T 5/17/12

Wavelength = Velocity Frequency or = V F

If we want to know the wavelength of a 2 Megahertz compression wave traveling through steel, we can use the formulae as we know compression sound speed of sound in steel is, 5920 meters per second.

5,920 2,000,000 = 2.96 mm

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DAY 2
TOPICS 1. PROPERTIES OF ULTRASONIC WAVES 2.MODES OF SOUND ENERGY 3.PRINCIPAL OF UT 4.REFLECTION ,TRANMISION , RAREFRACTION , DIFRACTION 5.SNELLS LAW
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SPECTROM OF SOUND:
Frequency range Hz Descripti on Examp le

020 20 20.000 > 20.000

Infrasou nd Audible sound Ultrasou nd

Earth quake Speech, music Bat, Quartz crystal

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General we are using 0.5 M Hz to 10 M Hz Ultrasonic Frequencies. In special testing's we go for up to 25 M Hz also(Immersion Testing)

For high thickness, high grain size materials we are using low frequencies bcoz low frequencies travels more distances and less attenuation. 5/17/12 3636

High frequencies are give good sensitivity and resolution But these high frequencies are more attenuated due to high grain sizes and more thickness. High frequency frequency low

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Factors Affecting the propagation of ultra sound:

The propagation of ultrasound in a material I depend on the density elastic properties of the material and type of the wave transmitted.

The test material grain size Attenuation( scattering, absorption) Acoustic impedance of the material Characteristic impedance of inclusion Diffraction
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Attenuation of Sound Wave

o

When sound travels through a medium, its intensity diminishes with distance. In idealized materials, sound pressure (signal amplitude) is only reduced by the spreading of the wave. Natural materials, however, all produce an effect which further weakens the sound. This further weakening results from two basic causes, which are scattering and absorption.
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Scatter:

This is the major cause of attenuation and is the redirection of the sound waves reflecting off grain boundaries, porosity and non-metallic inclusions, etc., And becomes more apparent on the inspection when the size of grain become of the wavelength of the search unit being 5/17/12 4040 employed.

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ABSORPTION:As the sound travel through a material a small amount of the energy is used up by the interaction of the particles, as they vibrate, causing friction which is dissipated as heat. As the frequency of the sound is increased the attenuation increases due to more particle vibration and increased sensitivity to small reflectors which is 5/17/12 4242

Natural attenuation also occurs due to the divergence of the beam in the far zone, i.e. assuming compression probe use, the amplitude of the backwall echo will be halved(-6db) every time the distance from the probe is doubled. Materials such as castings and austenitic stainless steel are highly attenuative due to their coarse grain structures, etc.,
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=s+a

where is attenuation constant s scattering constant a absorption constant

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Reflection, Transmission:

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Reflection:

How much sound energy coming back while hitting an interface.

Transmission:

How much energy transmitted from one medium to another medium.

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Reflection and Transmission Coefficients

Ultrasonic waves are reflected at boundaries where there is a difference in acoustic impedances (Z) of the materials on each side of the boundary. (See preceding page for more information on acoustic impedance.) This difference in Z is commonly referred 5/17/12 4848 to as the impedance mismatch. The

T=

1-R

R= Parentage of reflection coefficient T= Percentage of Transmission coefficient

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As soon as a sound wave comes to a change in material characteristics e.g. the surface of a workpiece, or an internal inclusion, wave propagation will change too:

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Behaviour at an interface
Mediu m1 Mediu m2

Incoming wave

Transmitted wave

Reflected wave
Interf ace
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Reflection + Transmission: Perspex - Steel

1,8 7 Incoming wave 1, 0,8 0 7 Transmitted wave

Reflected wave

Perspex
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Reflection + Transmission: Steel - Perspex

Incoming wave Transmitted wave

1, 0 0,1 3

Reflected wave

Persp ex

0,8 7

Ste el
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Amplitude of sound transmissions:

Water Steel

Copper Steel

Steel Air

Strong reflection Double transmission

Less reflection Single transmission

Strong reflection with inverted phase No transmission

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UT Principle

(Acoustic impedance mismatch)

Acoustic Impedance Sound travels through materials under the influence of sound pressure. Because molecules or atoms of a solid are bound elastically to one another, the excess pressure results in a wave propagating through the solid. The acoustic impedance (Z) of a material is defined as the product of 5/17/12 5656 density (p) and acoustic velocity (V) of

Acoustic impedance is important in The determination of acoustic transmission and reflection at the boundary of two materials having different acoustic impedance The design of ultrasonic transducers. Assessing absorption of sound in a medium.
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PRINCIPLE OF ULTRASONIC TESTING

AMPLITU DE DISCONTINUI TY INDICATION

BACK WALL ECHO

INITIAL PULSE TRANSDUC ER

HORIZONT AL SWEEP

MATERI AL

DISCONTINIUI TY

REFLECTION FROM DICONTINUITY

BACK WALL REFLECTION

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Modes of sound waves:

In solids, sound waves can propagate in four principle modes that are based on the way the particles oscillate. Sound can propagate as longitudinal waves, shear waves, surface waves, and in thin materials as plate waves. Longitudinal and shear waves 5959 the are

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Wave Types in Solids Longitudinal Transverse (Shear) Surface - Rayleigh Plate Wave Lamb

Particle Vibrations Parallel to wave direction Perpendicular to wave direction Elliptical orbit - symmetrical mode Component perpendicular to surface (extensional wave)

Plate Wave Love

Parallel to plane layer, perpendicular to wave direction

Stoneley Waves) Sezawa 5/17/12

(Leaky

RayleighWave guided along interface

Antisymmetric mode 6060

Reflection ,Rarefaction

When an ultrasound wave passes through an interface between two materials at an oblique angle, and the materials have different indices of refraction, it produces both reflected and refracted waves. Refraction takes place at an interface due to the different velocities of the 5/17/12 6161 acoustic waves within the two materials.

Angle of incidence=angle of reflection

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Snell law, mode conversion:

Snell's Law describes the relationship between the angles and the velocities of the waves. Snell's law equates the ratio of material velocities V1 and V2 to the ratio of the sine's of incident (Q1) and refraction (Q2) angles, as shown in the following equation.
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Where: VL1 is the longitudinal wave velocity in material 1. VL2 is the longitudinal wave velocity in material 2.
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Mode Conversion

When sound travels in a solid material, one form of wave energy can be transformed into another form. For example, when a longitudinal waves hits an interface at an angle, some of the energy can cause particle movement in the transverse direction to start a shear (transverse) wave.
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TRANSMISSION, REFLECTION & MODE CONVERSION OF LONGITUDINAL WAVES AT AN INTERFACE

INCIDENT LONGITUDINAL WAVE VELOCITY = VL
1

REFLECTED SHEAR WAVE VELOCITY = VS REFLECTED LONGITUDINAL WAVE VELOCITY = VL

MEDIUM 1

INTERFA CE
TRANSMITTED LONGITUDINAL WAVE VELOCITY = CL
2

MEDIUM 2

TRANSMITTED SHEAR WAVE VELOCITY = CS

SNELLS LAW
VL = Sin1

VS =

CL =

CS Sin4 Sin2

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Sin3

6666

Where: VL1 is the longitudinal wave velocity in material 1. VL2 is the longitudinal wave velocity in material 2. VS1 is the shear wave velocity in material 1. VS2 is the shear wave velocity in material 2.
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Diffraction:

This occurs when sound waves pass the tip of a narrow reflector. Some of the sound scatters off tip causing waves in different directions that reinforce or cancel out the original waves. This results in a series of high and low intensity waves radiating out from the tips, gives imperfection of sound bending around the edges of the defect.
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LONGITUDINAL WAVES: In longitudinal waves, the oscillations occur in the longitudinal direction or the direction of wave propagation. In compression and dilatational forces are active in these waves. They are also called pressure or compression waves. They are also sometimes called density waves because their particle density fluctuates as they move.
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Compression waves can be generated in liquids, as well as solids because the energy travels through the atomic structure by a series of compression and expansion (rarefaction) movements. These waves are high velocities compare to other waves, less sensitive and less attenuated. Compression waves can be generated in 5/17/12 7373 liquids, as well as solids because the

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Sound propagation
Longitudinal wave Direction of propagation

Direction of oscillation

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SHEAR WAVES:

In the transverse or shear wave, the particles oscillate at a right angle or transverse to the direction of propagation. shear waves require an acoustically solid material for effective propagation and therefore are not effectively propagated in materials such as liquids or gasses.
7676 Shear wave are relatively weak when

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Sound propagation
Transverse wave
Direction of oscillation

Direction of propagation

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Surface or Rayleigh waves:

Surface or Rayleigh waves travel the surface of a relative thick solid material penetrating to a depth of one wavelength. The particle movement has an elliptical orbit as shown in the image and animation below. Rayleigh waves are useful because they are very sensitive to surface defects and 5/17/12 8080 since they will follow the surface around,

These waves are high sensitive compare to all other waves. These wave velocities are approximately 90% of shear waves in solids.

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Surface waves are formed when shear waves refract to 90 degrees. Particle vibration is elliptical motion by changing direction at the interface with surface. Penetration depth is 1 wave length only. Their velocity is approximately 90% of shear waves of that material. These are high sensitive .
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Plate waves can be propagated only in very thin metals. Lamb waves are the most commonly used plate waves in NDT. Lamb waves are a complex vibrational wave that travels through the entire thickness of a material.
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With Lamb waves, a number of modes of particle vibration are possible, but the two most common are symmetrical and asymmetrical

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Typical Sound Velocities (m/sec)

Material Air Water Steel Aluminum Perspex Copper Brass Compression 332 1480 5920 6320 2730 4700 4430 Shear N/A N/A 3250 3130 1430 2260 2120

N/A= not applicable i.e. not travelling

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Air Water Steel, long Steel, trans

330 m/s 1480 m/s 5920 m/s 3250 m/s

Direction of oscillation

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Day 3

Topics Ultra sonic Sound generation Piezo electric materials Types of probes UT equipment

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ULTRAONIC SOUND GENERATION:

Piezo electric crystals generates ultra sonic sound. Piezo electric crystals generates ultrasonic sounds when we are giving electrical signal to them.

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Natural

Artificial Grown

Manufactured Ceramics

Quartz Crystals

Lithium Sulphate

Barium Titanate Lead Zirconate Lead Metaniobate Lead Zirconate Titanate

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Crystal material Quartz Lithium Sulphate Barium Titanate

Advantages Stable ,Good Wear Resistance Best Receiver and Easily Damped

Limitations Poor piezo electric properties Soluble in water

Best Transmitter good Less critical piezo electric temperature properties and may used as Focused beam

Lead Zirconate Lead Zirconate Titanate

Good piezo electric properties Good transmitter and Poor silvering Round properties

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Lead zerconate titanate crystal lattice:

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Crystal Thickness
Frequency depends on the thickness of the crystal, according to the formula :

t = v 2f
Where t=crystal thickness, v= sound velocity in crystal, f= frequency

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The conversion of electrical pulses to mechanical vibrations and the conversion of returned mechanical vibrations back into electrical energy is the basis for ultrasonic testing. The active element is the heart of the transducer as it converts the electrical energy to acoustic energy, and vice versa.
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Piezoelectric Effect

+
Batte ry

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Piezoelectric al Crystal (Quartz)

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Piezoelectric Effect

The crystal gets thicker, due to a distortion of the crystal lattice

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Piezoelectric Effect

+
The effect inverses with polarity change
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Piezoelectric Effect
Sound wave with frequency f

U(f )
An alternating voltage generates crystal oscillations at the frequency f
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Piezoelectric Effect

Short pulse (<1 s )

A short voltage pulse generates an oscillation at the crystals resonant frequency f0
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Reception of ultrasonic waves

A sound wave hitting a piezoelectric crystal, induces crystal vibration which then causes electrical voltages at the crystal surfaces. Electric al energy

Piezoelectrical crystal

Ultrasonic wave

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Probe frequency , bandwidth & damping:

UT probe transmits range of frequencies, this I know as bandwidth. For example 5 M Hz probe trans mitts 4 t0 6 M Hz
Broad band probes Narrow band probe

Highly damped Short pulse length Less dead zone Good resolution Poor penetration 5/17/12

Low damping Longer pulse length More dead zone Poor resolution Good penetration 111111

Near zone, Far zone, Dead zone, Beam divergence

Crysta l
D 0 N

Focu s

Accoustical axis

Angle of divergence
6

Near field

Far field

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Since the ultrasound originates from a number of points along the transducer face, the ultrasound intensity along the beam is affected by constructive and destructive wave interference These are sometimes also referred to as diffraction effects in the NDT world. This wave interference leads to 5/17/12 115115 extensive fluctuations in the sound

Because of acoustic variations within a near field, it can be extremely difficult to accurately evaluate flaws in materials when they are positioned within this area. The pressure waves combine to form a relatively uniform front at the end of the near field.
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The area beyond the near field116116 where

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Transducer Beam Spread

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The energy in the beam does not remain in a cylinder, but instead spread out as it propagates through the material. The phenomenon is usually referred to as beam spread but is sometimes also referred to as beam divergence or ultrasonic diffraction.
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Full beam angle angle (Beam spread) divergence)

Half beam (Beam

Where:

= Beam divergence angle from centerline to point where signal is at half strength.
V = Sound velocity in the material. (inch/sec or cm/sec)

a = Radius of the transducer. (inch or cm) D= Dia of probe=2a F = Frequency of the transducer. (cycles/second)

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Low frequency Long wavelength More beam spread Shorter near zone Better penetration Less attenuation Longer dead zone Less sensitivity 5/17/12

HIGH FREQUENCY Short wavelength Less beam spread Longer near zone Less penetration More attenuation Shorter dead zone Higher sensitivity 122122

Transducers:

The conversion of electrical pulses to mechanical vibrations and the conversion of returned mechanical vibrations back into electrical energy is the basis for ultrasonic testing. The active element is the heart of the transducer as it converts the 5/17/12 123123 electrical energy to acoustic energy,

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Contact transducers are used for direct contact inspections, and are generally hand manipulated. They have elements protected in a rugged casing to withstand sliding contact with a variety of materials. These transducers have an ergonomic design so that they are easy to grip and move along a surface.
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Ultrasonic Probes
socket crystal Dampin g Delay / protecting face Electrical matching Cable

Straight beam probe

TR-probe

Angle beam probe

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Delay line transducers provide versatility with a variety of replaceable options. Removable delay line, surface conforming membrane, and protective wear cap options can make a single transducer effective for a wide range of applications. As the name implies, the primary function of a delay line transducer is to introduce a time delay between the generation of the sound wave and the 5/17/12 132132

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Dual element transducers contain two independently operating elements in a single housing. One of the elements transmits and the other receives. Active elements can be chosen for their sending and receiving capabilities providing a transducer with a cleaner signal, and transducers for special applications, such as inspection of course grain material. Dual element transducers are especially well 5/17/12 138138

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Angle beam transducers and wedges are typically used to introduce a refracted shear wave into the test material. Transducers can be purchased in a variety of fixed angles or in adjustable versions where the user determines the angles of incident and refraction. In the fixed angle versions, the angle of refraction that is marked on the transducer is only accurate for a particular material, which 5/17/12 143143 is usually steel.

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The angled sound path allows the sound beam to be reflected from the back wall to improve delectability of flaws in and around welded areas. They are also used to generate surface waves for use in detecting defects on the surface of a component

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Normal incidence shear wave transducers are unique because they allow introduction of shear waves directly into a test piece without the use of an angle beam wedge. Careful design has enabled manufacturing of transducers with minimal longitudinal wave contamination. Paint brush transducers are151151 to used

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SELECTION OF TEST FREQUENCIES

TEST PARPMETERS

RECOMMENDED FREQUENCY RANGE

CAST IRON & COARSE GRAIN MATERIALS REFINED GRAIN STEELS, SMALL DISCONTINUITIES, (BURST,FLAKING,PIPE) LARGE FORGINGS SMALL FORGINGS MICROSCOPIC DEFECTS, FATIGUE CRACKS ETC.

0.5 MHz 2.25 TO 5.0 MHz

5.0 - 10.0 MHz 10.0 MHz

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SELECTION OF PROBES
TYPE OF PROBE NORMAL BEAM PROBE SIZE
LARGE DIAMETER

APPLICATION / ADVANTAGE
D

USED FOR THICKER SECTION MAXIMUM BEAM COVERAGE MINIMUM NUMBER OF SCANNING PASSES LOW BEAM SPREAD

SMALL DIAMETER

LESS THICK SECTION BEAM SPREAD IS MORE DESIRABLE FOR RANDOMLY ORIENTED FLAW

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Couplant:

A couplant is a material (usually liquid) that facilitates the transmission of ultrasonic energy from the transducer into the test specimen. Couplant is generally necessary because the acoustic impedance mismatch between air and solids, such as the test specimen, is large and, 5/17/12 160160 therefore, nearly all of the energy is

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The couplant displaces the air and makes it possible to get more sound energy into the test specimen so that a usable ultrasonic signal can be obtained. In contact ultrasonic testing a thin film of oil, glycerin or water is generally used between the transducer and the test surface.
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Ultrasonic Flaw Detector:

amplifier

I P

screen

B E

horizontal sweep cloc k

probe
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pulser work piece

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The pulse generator:It is also known as clock or timer. It generates electrical signal frequencies. The time base generator:It is also known as sweep generator. It controls the voltage or charge on the X-plate causing beam on the CRT to sweep across in a linear motion.
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The pulse transmitter:- It is also called a pulsar circuit. This circuit burst the electrical energy to activate the probe. The receiving amplifier:- This circuit amplifies the incoming electrical signal. The attenuator:- It is also called a gain control circuit. It reduces the amplification from the amplifier by 5/17/12 165165

CATHODE RAY TUBE(CRT)

Cathode is an out put device which shows the flaws of the job material. Let us see the cross sectional view of CRT.

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Cathode ray tube : CRT

10

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Modes of displays:

Ultrasonic data can be collected and displayed in a number of different formats. The three most common formats are know in the NDT world as A-scan B-scan C-scan
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A-Scan Presentation The A-scan presentation displays the amount of received ultrasonic energy as a function of time.

The relative amount of received energy is plotted along the vertical axis and elapsed time . In the A-scan presentation, relative 5/17/12 176176 discontinuity size can be estimated by

The B-scan presentations is a profile (cross-sectional) view of the a test specimen. In the B-scan, the time-of-flight (travel time) of the sound energy is displayed along the vertical and the linear position of the transducer is displayed along the horizontal axis.
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B-Scan Presentation

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C-Scan Presentation

The C-scan presentation provides a plantype view of the location and size of test specimen features. The plane of the image is parallel to the scan pattern of the transducer. C-scan presentations are produced with an system, 5/17/12 automated data acquisition 179179

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Cables and Connectors:

For Ultrasonic testing Coaxial cables are used for connecting transducer and UT flaw detector. Because coaxial cables are S/N ratio is good.

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DAY 4

Ultrasonic Testing Techniques Calibration blocks Weld scan

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Ultrasonic Testing Techniques: A. Contact Testing 1.Pulse echo Testing 2.Through Transmission Testing B. Immersion Testing C. Through Transmission Testing D. Air Coupling Testing 5/17/12
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Contact Testing:

In Contact Testing the Transducer is on contact with testing object with the help of couplet.

Pulse Echo Testing: .In which single Transducer is used .From the reflected echo I to be considered.
5/17/12 190190 .It is mostly used industrial UT technique.

CONTACT TESTING

SIDE 1

SIDE 2

SIDE 3

DOUBLE V BUTT JOINT SCANNING FROM ALL FOUR SIDES

SIDE 4

ADVANTAGES

IT IS PORTABLE. AMOUNT OF

SYSTEM DOES NOT REQUIRE LARGE ACCESSORIES 5/17/12

191191

METHODS OF ULTRASONIC TESTING OF MATERIALS PULSE METHOD ECHO

AMPLIFIER

RECEIV ER
HIGH FREQUENCY GENERATOR

TRANSMITT ER

PULSE ECHO METHOD

CONTACT TESTING
NORMAL PROBE ANGLE PROBE T.R. PROBE

IMMERSION TESTING
NORMAL PROBE ANGLE PROBE

0.5 TO 6 MHz COMMONLY USED FREQUENCY FOR CONTACT TESTING

5/17/12

10 TO 25 MHz

IMMERSION TESTING

192192

Depth of defect is possible. Near zone and Dead zone are major draw backs in this technique. In which from the reflected echo we will estimate depth, size, shape and type of defect. For weld scanning angle beams are used 193193

5/17/12

Through Transmission technique: In which separate Transducer and Receiver is used. In which both side accessible is important. Tx, Rx are in same axis. It mostly used for less thickness plate scanning.
5/17/12 194194

METHODS OF ULTRASONIC TESTING OF MATERIALS 2. THROUGH METHOD TRANSMISSION

INTENSITY OF ULTRASOUND IS MEASURED AFTER IT HAS PASSED THROUGH THE TEST PIECE
RECEIVING PROBE AMPLIFIER INTENSITY METER
0 100% INTENSITY

TRANSMITTING PROBE
HIGH FREQUENCY GENERATOR

AMPLIFIER

25% intensity due to partial energy being received because of the discontinuity DISCONTINUI TY

ADVANTA GES

CAPABILITY OF TESTING THICKER TEST SPECIMENS DEFECTS VERY NEAR TO THE SURFACE CAN BE DETECTED DEFECT LOCATION IS NOT POSSIBLE. BOTH SIDES SHOULD BE ACCESSIBLE.

LIMITATI 5/17/12 ONS

195195

AIR COUPLING METHOD

In this we used air as a couplent This method is used when we test heated objects.

5/17/12

196196

Straight beam inspection techniques:

Direct contact, single element probe Direct contact, dual element probe Fixed delay

Through transmission

Immersion testing

5/17/12

197197

Sound reflection at a flaw

s

Prob e

Sound travel path Work piece

Fla w

5/17/12

198198

Plate testing
I P B E F

plat e

delamination

10

IP = Initial pulse F = Flaw BE = Backwall echo

199199

5/17/12

Wall thickness measurement

s s

Corrosi on
5/17/12

1 0

200200

Through transmission testing

Through transmission signal

1 2 0 2 4 6 8 1 0

Fla w
5/17/12 201201

Immersion testing
1
surface = sound entry backw all I P I E

2
water delay fla w

1
B E

I P

I E

2
B F E

0
5/17/12

10

10

202202

IMMERSION TESTING METHOD

In this case near field is minimize in water

velocity of water --------------------- X velocity of job material

5/17/12 203203

min water path= thickness

The main disadvantage of this method is shocking problem. The main advantage of this method is near field is minimized. In this we use high frequency probes are used around 25 Mhz.
204204 In this object we can generate all type

5/17/12

5/17/12

205205

Automated Immersion scanning:

5/17/12

206206

5/17/12

207207

5/17/12

208208

Weld inspection
F
s
0 20 40 60 80 100

Work piece with welding

5/17/12

a a ' s

a=s sin a' = a x d' = s cos d = 2T t'

= probe angle s = sound path a = surface distance a = reduced surface distance d = virtual depth d = actual depth T = material thickness

Lack of fusion

209209

5/17/12

210210

5/17/12

211211

5/17/12

212212

5/17/12

213213

Shear Wave Propagation

Transmitter / Receiver

Propagate at same angle through part

Time (distance)
5/17/12

No reflected echo
214214

Shear Wave Beam Spread

Transmitter / Receiver

5/17/12

215215

Reflection
Transmitter / Receiver

Wave reflected from acoustic interface

Time (distance)
5/17/12

Reflected echo

216216

Reflection
Transmitter / Receiver

5/17/12

Strong reflected echo

217217

Reflection
Transmitter / Receiver

5/17/12

Scattered reflected 218218 echo

Reflection
Transmitter / Receiver

No reflected echo
5/17/12 219219

Raster Scan
Transducer moved into and away from weld

while being indexed Manual or automated (encoded for position) Slow

5/17/12

220220

Line Scan
Transducer moved along the weld Fixed distance from weld Manual or automated, encoded for position Fast

5/17/12

221221

Different types of probe movement:

5/17/12

222222

Calibration refers to the act of evaluating and adjusting the precision and accuracy of measurement equipment. In ultrasonic testing, several forms of calibration must occur 1. The electronics of the equipment must be calibrated to assure that they are performing as designed. This operation is usually performed by the equipment manufacturer . 2.This user calibration is necessary because most ultrasonic equipment can be reconfigured for use in a large variety of applications. 5/17/12 223223

Calibration Methods

The user must "calibrate" the system, which includes the equipment settings, the transducer, and the test setup, to validate that the desired level of precision and accuracy are achieved.

In ultrasonic testing, there is also a need for reference standards. Reference standards are used to establish a general level of consistency in 224224 5/17/12

Reference standards also help the inspector to estimate the size of flaws. In a pulse-echo type setup, signal strength depends on both the size of the flaw and the distance between the flaw and the transducer. The inspector can use a reference standard with an artificially induced flaw of known size and at approximately the same distance away for the transducer 5/17/12 225225

CHARACTERISTIC OF ULTRASONIC PROBES

SENSITIVITY

ABILITY OF THE PROBE TO DETECT

SMALLEST DISCONTINUITY REFLECTED

MEASURED BY THE AMPLITUDE OF ITS RESPONSE TO ENERGY FROM A STANDARD DISCONTINUITY

1 0 0

PROBE NO. 1

PROBE NO. 2

8 0

6 0

4 0

2 0

FLAT BOTTOM HOLE

1 0

0 0

2 0

4 0

6 0

8 0

1 0 0

1 0

FLAT BOTTOM HOLE

SAME REFLECTOR, SAME DISTANCE & GAIN SETTING PROBE N0 - 2 IS MORE SENSITIVE

HIGHER THE FREQUENCY, MORE THE 5/17/12SENSITIVITY

226226

IIW V1 Block:
1). Material: carbon steel 2). Dimensions: 300mmL*100mmW*25mmT. 3). Application: Used for calibration of shear , longitudinal transducers, verification of shear wedge exit point 5/17/12 227227

5/17/12

228228

5/17/12

229229

5/17/12

230230

RESOLUTION
ABILITY TO SEPARATE ECHOES FROM TWO OR MORE DISCONTINUITIES LOCATED CLOSE TOGETHER IN DEPTH

1 0 0

8 0

6 0

4 0

2 0

1 0

0 0

2 0

4 0

6 0

8 0

1 0 0

1 0

GOOD RESOLUTION

POOR RESOLUTION

HIGHER THE FREQUENCY, BETTER WILL BE 5/17/12 RESOLUTION

231231

CALIBERATION OF ULTRASONIC EQUIPEMENT

GENERAL RULES

MINIMUM TWO REFERENCE POINTS ARE NECESSARY DELAY

FIRST REFERENCE ALWAYS CONTROLLED WITH THE HELP OF CONTROL KNOB

SECOND REFERENCE POINT ALWAYS CONTROLLED WITH THE HELP RANGE CONTROL KNOB
INITIAL ECHO IIW V1 BLOCK
1 0 0

OF

1ST BACK WALL ECHO (BWE)

5/17/12

2 0

4 0

6 0

8 0

6 8 232232

1 0

CALIBERATION OF ULTRASONIC EQUIPEMENT

RANGE CALIBERATION NORMAL PROBE BY
INITIAL ECHO
1 0 0

1ST BACK WALL ECHO (BWE)

IIW V1 BLOCK

0 0

2 0

4 0

6 0

8 0

1 0

1ST BWE
1 0 0

2ND BW E

INITIAL ECHO
1 0 0

1ST BWE 2ND BW E

INITIAL ECHO

8 0

6 0

4 0

2 0

5/17/12

2 0

4 0

6 0

8 0

1 0

8 1 233233 0

IIW:V-2: OR Miniature Aperture Block

Description: 12.5mm thick, small calibration block

For on-site checking of miniature shear wave probe index,

time base, beam angle , Sensitivity(1.5 mm)

Includes a 25mm and 50 mm radius, 1.5mm hole engraved reference mark scales from 35 to 75 degrees. In accordance with BS EN
234234

5/17/12

5/17/12

235235

ASME Angle Beam Calibration Blocks:

Meet the requirements of ASME Section V, Article 5, Fig. T-542.8.1.1 and contain EDM notches at 10% of nominal wall on both OD and ID oriented longitudinally and transversely.

5/17/12

236236

5/17/12

237237

AWS Resolution Calibration (RC) Block

5/17/12

238238

The RC Block is used to determine the resolution of angle beam transducers per the requirements of AWS Engraved Index markers are provided for 45, 60, and 70 degree refracted angle beams.

5/17/12

239239

Step and Tapered Calibration Wedges

5/17/12

240240

Step and tapered calibration wedges come in a large variety of sizes and configurations. Step wedges are typically manufactured with four or five steps but custom wedge can be obtained with any number of steps. Tapered wedges have a constant taper
241241

5/17/12

Distance/Area-Amplitude Blocks

5/17/12

242242

Distance/area amplitude correction blocks typically are purchased as a tenblock set, as shown above. Aluminum sets are manufactured per the requirements of ASTM E127 and steel sets per ASTM E428. Sets can also be purchased in titanium. Each block contains a single flatbottomed, plugged hole. The hole sizes and metal path distances are as follows:
243243

5/17/12

DAY 5

DAC CURVE DGS CURVE 6dB,20dB DROP METHODS DISCONTINUTIES

5/17/12 244244

DAC Curve:

Acoustic signals from the same reflecting surface will have different amplitudes at different distances from the transducer. Distance amplitude correction (DAC) provides a means of establishing a graphic reference level sensitivity as a function of sweep distance on the Ascan display.
5/17/12

The use of DAC allows signals reflected 245245

5/17/12

246246

5/17/12

247247

A distance amplitude correction curve is constructed from the peak amplitude responses from reflectors of equal area at different distances in the same material. Reference standards which incorporate side drilled holes (SDH), flat bottom holes (FBH), or notches whereby the reflectors are located at varying depths are commonly used 5/17/12 248248

While drawing DAC 1st echo set to 80% FSH, and note down the gain . Which is Actual gain or Actual dB. And trace the next 2 or 3 indications, and make a curve. While scanning on job increase gain to(DAC+6dB), which is called as scanning dB. 5/17/12 249249

DGS curve:

DGS Distance Gain Size is a method of setting sensitivity or assessing the signal from an unknown reflector based on the theoretical response of a flat-bottomed hole reflector perpendicular to the beam axis. The DGS system was introduced by Krautkramer in 1958 and is referred to in German as AVG. A schematic of a general DGS 250250 diagram

5/17/12

5/17/12

251251

In a general DGS diagram the distance is shown in units of Near Field and the scale is logarithmic to cover a wide range. The blue curves plotted show how the amplitudes obtained from different sizes of disc shaped reflector (equivalent to a FBH) decrease as the distance between the probe and the reflector increases.
5/17/12 252252

Finding Length of defects:

Length of defect by 2 techniques. 1. 6dB Drop method 2.20 dB drop method

5/17/12

253253

5/17/12

254254

5/17/12

255255

DISCONTINUTIES

5/17/12

256256

DEFECTS IN PLATE MATERIAL

LAMINATIONS

INCLUSIONS > LINEAR INCLUSIONS > SCATERED INCLUSIONS

5/17/12

STRINGERS

257257

DEFECTS IN WELDS

ROOT DEFECTS:>LACK OF PENETRATION >LACK OF ROOT FUSION >ROOT CRACK >ROOT UNDER CUT >OVER PENETRATION
5/17/12

>ROOT CONCAVITY

258258

DEFECTS IN PLATE MATERIALS

5/17/12

259259

LAMINATIONS:

THESE ARE FORMED WHEN A BILLET IS FLATTENED AND SPREAD OUT MAY CAUSES LAMINATION.PIPE AND POROSITY ALSO MAY CAUSES LAMINATION. 5/17/12 260260

APPLICATIONS OF ULTRASONIC TESTING TESTING OF LAMINATION IN PLATES

INITIAL ECHO 1ST BWE 2ND BWE
INITIAL ECHO 1ST BWE FROM DEFECT 2ND BWE FROM DEFECT 3RD BWE FROM DEFECT

1 0 0

8 0

6 0

4 0

2 0

1 0

0 0

2 0

4 0

6 0

8 0

1 0 0

1 0

NO DEFECT

DEFECT INDICATION

PLA TE

LAMINATION IN THE PLATE

4TH BWE FROM DEFECT

5/17/12

261261

APPLICATIONS OF ULTRASONIC TESTING BOND TESTING

INITIAL ECHO
FIRST ECHO FROM INTERFACE

1ST BWE

INITIAL ECHO

1ST BWE FROM DEFECT

2ND BWE FROM DEFECT

1 0 0

8 0

6 0

4 0

2 0

1 0

0 0

2 0

4 0

6 0

8 0

1 0 0

1 0

NO DEFECT INTERFA CE

DEFECT INDICATION

DEFECT IN BONDING AT INTERFACE CALLED DISBONDING BEARING CASTING PORTION

5/17/12

BABBIT 262262 METAL

APPLICATIONS OF ULTRASONIC TESTING BOND TESTING

INITIAL ECHO
FIRST ECHO FROM INTERFACE

1ST BWE

INITIAL ECHO

1ST BWE FROM DEFECT

2ND BWE FROM DEFECT

1 0 0

8 0

6 0

4 0

2 0

1 0

0 0

2 0

4 0

6 0

8 0

1 0 0

1 0

NO DEFECT INTERFA CE

DEFECT INDICATION

DEFECT IN BONDING AT INTERFACE CALLED DISBONDING BEARING CASTING PORTION

5/17/12

BABBIT 263263 METAL

INCULUSIONS

LINEAR INCLUSIONS:

5/17/12

264264

SCATTERED INCLUSIONS:

5/17/12

265265

INTERPRETATION OF ULTRASONIC FLAW - ECHO INDICATIONS SPHERICAL FLAW (POROSITY)

REFLECT ONLY A SMALL AMOUNT OF SOUND ECHO HEIGHT SMALL ECHO HEIGHT REMAINS UNCHANGED WHEN ANGLE OF CHANGED

APPROACH IS

INITIAL ECHO

INDICATION FROM SPHERICAL FLAW

BWE

0 0

2 0

4 0

6 0

8 0

1 0 0

1 0

5/17/12

SPHERICALF LAW

SCREEN PRESENTATION WHEN PROBE IS AT 1 OR 2 OR 3 OR 4 266266

STRINGERS:

These are formed when the non metallic inclusions in the ingot.
The signal response Is like the linear Inclusion signal In the rolling direction The BWE is still present But the signal can be Maintained along the Defects length 5/17/12 267267

A ROLLING LAP:

This defect occurs in the rolling process.

5/17/12

268268

DEFECTS IN WELDS

5/17/12

269269

ROOT DEFECTS

LACK OF PENETRATIN: High amplitude corner signals both sides of the weld, rapidly decreasing in amplitude on rotational path. Plotting at plate thickness depth, the width of the root gap apart, with no cross over.
270270

5/17/12

WELD TESTING - INTERPRETATION OF ULTRASONIC INDICATIONS LACK OF PENETRATION

INITIAL ECHO

INDICATION FROM CORNER

0 0

2 0

4 0

6 0

8 0

ANGLE PROBE

WEL D

1 0 0

1 0

LACK OF PENETRATION

SCREEN PRESENTATION WHEN PROBE IS AT 1 OR 2

SHARP ECHO FROM BOTH SIDES OF WELD INDICATION REMAINS AT THE SAME POSITION WHEN PROBE IS ALONG THE LENGTH 5/17/12 271271 MOVED

ROOT CRACK

It would be normal to expect a high amplitude, multi-faceted reflector probably from both sides of the weld. The vertical height of the crack was substantial, a characteristic running signal on the time base would be noted on depth scan with the angle probe.
5/17/12 272272

ROOT CRACK

5/17/12

273273

ROOT UNDERCUT

Depend on how severe the undercut is will determine the type of amplitude received. However, associated with the undercut echo will be as signal from the root bead as well. If the undercut is only one side274274 of the

5/17/12

ROOT UNDERCUT

5/17/12

275275

EXCESS ROOT PENETRATION

Root bead type signals on both side of the welds are plotting beyond expected beam path length to the bead and crossing over. Steeper angle probe(i.e., 38 and 45 degrees), access permitting will give best results.
5/17/12 276276

WELD TESTING - INTERPRETATION OF ULTRASONIC INDICATIONS EXCESS PENETRATION

INITIAL ECHO

INDICATION FROM EXCESS PENETRATION

1 0 0

0 0

2 0

4 0

6 0

8 0

ANGLE PROBE

WEL D

1 0

EXCESS PENETRATION

SCREEN PRESENTATION WHEN PROBE IS AT 1 ECHO MAY BE ABSENT WHEN PROBE AT 2 DEPENDING ON SURFACE CONTOUR

SHARP ECHO DEPENDS ON SHAPE OF ROOT SURFACE 5/17/12 277277

ROOT CONCAVITY

Low amplitude signals on both sides of the weld are plotting short of plate thickness and no cross over. If only slight concavity it is likely that it will not be observed ultrasonically.

5/17/12

278278

WELD TESTING - INTERPRETATION OF ULTRASONIC INDICATIONS ROOT CONCAVITY

INITIAL ECHO

INDICATION FROM ROOT CONCAVITY

1 0 0

0 0

2 0

4 0

6 0

8 0

ANGLE PROBE

WEL D

1 0

SCREEN PRESENTATION WHEN PROBE IS AT 1 OR 2

ROOT CONCAVITY

5/17/12

279279

DEFECTS IN WELD REGION

High amplitude signal from a on full skip and c on half skip. Low amplitude signal from c and d.

5/17/12

280280

SLAG INCLUSION

Detectable from all accessible positions and directions due to volumetric nature. Signal contains numerous half cycles and have a rounded peak. It should be detected with any angle 5/17/12 281281 probe.

SLAG INCLUSION

5/17/12

282282

CLUSTER POROSITY

Detectable from all accessible positions and directions due to volumetric nature. Very low amplitude response due to signal attenuation giving multiple signal with a wide time base. It is also called as multiple small inclusions. 5/17/12 283283

CLUSTER POROSITY

5/17/12

284284

WELD TESTING - INTERPRETATION OF ULTRASONIC INDICATIONS MISMATCH

INITIAL ECHO INDICATION FROM MISMATCH

0 0

2 0

4 0

6 0

8 0

ANGLE PROBE

WEL D

1 0 0

1 0

SCREEN PRESENTATION WHEN PROBE IS AT 2

MISMAT CH

ECHO MAY BE ABSENT WHEN PROBE AT 1 DEPENDING ON SURFACE CONTOUR

STRONG ECHO INDICATION WHEN SCANNED FROM LOWER SIDE OF WELD

THE

NO INDICATION FROM OTHER SIDE 5/17/12

285285

Accept and Rejection criteria:

According to CODES and STANDARDS we will interpitation the results. Codes and standards are intended to enhance the safety of workers and the public CODE:
5/17/12 286286 A systematic collection of regulations

A standard is a set of "how to" instructions for designers, manufacturers, and/or users of the equipment covered. It can run from a few paragraphs to hundreds of pages. Standards are considered voluntary because they serve as guidelines only, without the force of law. Organizations such as ASME that develop standards can publish them, 5/17/12 and can certify manufacturers 287287

Some of the codes used in NDT API 650 Tanks. API 1104 Long Pipe Lines. ASME Sec V Procedures. Oil and Storage Cross Country or Preparation of NDT Boiler and

ASME Sec VIII Div 1&2 Pressure Vessels . ASME Sec IX

5/17/12

288288 Welder Qualification