Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Productivity : 1.Definition, 2.measurement, 3.productivity index, 4.types of production system, 5.Industrial Ownership.
Unit-II Management Function : Principles of Management Management Tools time and motion study, work simplification process charts and flow diagrams, Production Planning, Specification of Production requirements. Unit-III Inventory control : Inventory, cost, Deterministic models, Introduction to supply chain management.
Unit-IV Quality control : Meaning, process control, SQC control charts, single, double and sequential sampling, Introduction to TQM. Unit-V Environmental Issues : Environmental Pollution various management techniques to control Environmental pollution Various control acts for Air, Water, Solid waste and Noise pollution.
Industrial Management
Industrial Management is concerned with the
Whereas most engineering disciplines apply skills to very specific areas, industrial engineering is applied in virtually every industry.
Examples of where industrial engineering might be used include shortening queues at a theme park, Mapping economically an operating room, distributing products worldwide, and manufacturing cheaper and more reliable automobiles.
APPLICATION OF INDUSTRIAL MANAGEMENT Applications of industrial management are summarized in the following departments of industry:
1. Managing and arranging the location of facilities 2. Design of Plant layouts 3. Management t of material handling systems 4. Supply chain management. 5. Production and Planning control 6. Quality control & Total quality management 7. Inventory & Materials management 8. Maintenance management 9. Operations management 10. Labor management
Scope of
5.
For example: The Industrial Management consists of Planning in various segments of industry in all the departments,
e.g. Production, Inspection & quality, Procurement, Store management, management of activities in assembly line etc. In production department the management includes selection of materials, planning of processes, Routing, Scheduling and controlling the activities etc., Scope of Industrial Management encompasses all industrial and human activities.
What TCS Provides 1. Geospatial Technologies (GST): These reduce maintenance costs, optimize assets, monitor environmental impacts, automate processes, streamline work procedures, integrate business systems and enable regulatory reporting through dashboards. 2. Control System Integration (CSI): This involves upgrading water, waste-water treatment and power plants in terms of hardware, software and process areas. It covers the design, development and implementation of control systems to cater to the redefined process requirements as mandated by environmental regulations. 3. Advanced Process Control (APC): It optimizes water and waste water/sludge treatment process by reducing the total cost of operation while improving operational efficiency and meeting quality norms. 4. Real-Time Systems (RTS): These are used for developing data acquisition, real-time control and monitoring products and solutions for automating plant operations. 5. Enterprise Asset Management (EAM): This improves the operational and IT asset management. We provide services like business process analysis, solution mapping, product configuration, product customization, system integration with legacy systems, data conversion, testing, go-live and post implementation support in the EAM space. 6. Life-Cycle Investment Planning (L-CIP): TCS innovative solution L-CIP includes Universal Prioritization System (UPS) to allow all kinds of projects to compete for capital on a level-playing field and eventually pick the optimal combination that delivers the maximum benefits to the business, customers and the environment.
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Productivity = Labour utilisation X labour Efficiency Standard hours X Available shift hours Available shift hours Actual hours worked Standards hours Actual hours worked
For example, traditionally productivity in hospital nursing units has been measured by hours per patient day (HPPD). That requires an inversion of the typical calculations: meaning total hours are divided by total patient days.
Example
Nurses in Unit A worked collectively a total of 25 hours to treat a patient who stayed 5 days, and nurses in Unit B worked a total of 16 hours to treat a patient who stayed 4 days. Calculate which of the two similar hospital nursing units is more productive.
HPPD A
HPPD B
Since the HPPD productivity ratio is expressed as input over output, lower is better. Unit B productivity is better than Unit A.
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Productivity can be measured in several ways: e.g. Output per worker or hour of labour Output per hour / day / week Output per machine Unit costs (total costs divided by total output)
The unit cost measure is particularly important. A falling ratio would indicate that efficiency was improving.
Productivity measurement:
Global Methods: = comparison of the total volume of outp and total employment in a given industry in different countries. Sample Methods: = based on the comparison of performance of few selected industries producing identical products under identical conditions. Net output value method= based on the comparison of value of net output per head in the two countries converted in to the same monetary unit. productivity = output man-hour
Measuring Productivity
Productivity is a measure of how efficiently inputs are converted to outputs
Productivity = output/input
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(a) Continuous production (b) Job or unit production (c) Intermittent production (a) Continuous production: It refers to the production of standardized products with a standard set of process and operation sequence in anticipation of demand. It is also known as mass flow production or assembly line production.
This system ensures less work in process inventory and high product quality but involves large investment in machinery and equipment. The system is suitable in pants involving large volume and small variety of output e.g. oil refineries reform cement manufacturing etc.
(b) Job or Unit production: It involves production as per customer's specification each batch or order consists of a small lot of identical products and is different from other batches. The system requires comparatively smaller investment in machines and equipment. It is flexible and can be adapted to changes in product design and order size without much inconvenience. This system is most suitable where heterogeneous products are produced against specific orders.
1
2 3 4
Business Activities
Kendriya Bhandar is into the following business activities: a) Sales of Grocery and Consumer products b) Sales of Stationery and office equipment c) Sales of Medicines
Management Function:
Unity Of Command-
Frederick Winslow Taylor (March 20, 1856 March 21, 1915) was an American mechanical engineer who sought to improve industrial efficiency.
He is regarded as the father of scientific management and was one of the first management consultants
Taylor thought that by analyzing work, the "One Best Way" to do it would be found.
He is most remembered for developing the stopwatch time study, which combined with Frank Gilbreth's motion study methods later becomes the field of time and motion study.
Gilbreth with a wire representation of the path of motion for a unit of work
1. F.W. Taylor initiated a series of experiments to study the ways men handle materials, machines and tools to develop a coordinated system of work management . 2. He advocated one best method of doing a job which must result from the scientific method of the work. 3. For this purpose he proposed work study (which means organised, objective , systematic , analytical and critical assessment of the methods of doing various operations by the workers. 1. The byproducts of work study included method study, time study and motion study. 2. These concepts are the basis of scientific management developed by Taylor.
3. The purpose of these techniques as advocated by Taylor was improvement of work and increase in the efficiency of the workers.
Means organised, objective , systematic , analytical and critical assessment of the methods of doing various operations by the workers
Different aspects of work study -
Work study
1. Methods study
2. Motion study
3. Time Study
4. Fatigue Study
Motion Study: 1. It is the study of the movement of a machine operator and his machine on the job. 2. The purpose is to eliminate useless motions thereby establish standards of performance, for developing a more efficient and less time consuming system of operation.
Time Study: 1. It is done to find out by observation and study the minimum time required to perform an operation . 2. Through time study the precise time required for such elements of a mans work is determined. 3. It will help in fixing the standard time required to do a particular job.
Basis of comparison
Meaning
Nature
Purpose
Techniques
Motion is conducted with Time study is conducted a moving camera with a stop watch.
How it Works Step-by-Step 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Establish the standard job method. Break down the job into elements Study the job. Rate the workers performance Compute the average time Compute the normal time Compute the standard time
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brought an engineers and psychologists skills to study the economy of movements-work simplification through elimination of useless motions and waste-
study work processes with a view to simplifying the process such that the work process becomes more efficient and effective and
thereby raises productivity and reduces wastage of labor effort, materials, space, time and energy in the process of producing a good or delivering a service
Recording techniques:
The next step in the basic procedure , after selecting the work to be studied( work study= technique employed to improve the activities in the production(Time & Motion) is to record all the facts relating to existing methods.
According to nature of the job being studied and the purpose for which the record is required, the following are the most generally used techniques-
1- Material type
2- Man type
3-Equipement type
INDICATIONS
Circles for operations Arrows for transports, Squares for inspections, Triangles for storage,
SYMBOLS
The letter
D for delays.
Care must be taken in making flow process chart to decide whether materials or men are to be followed, because descriptions are likely to indicate first one and then the other being followed.
One advantage of a time scale is that it brings the above discussed five standards symbols for what the two hands are doing at any given movements opposite to one another. For examples:
OPERATION
It is used for the activities like , grasping position, releasing, etc. of tools , components or material.
It is used to represent the TRANSPORTATION movements of the hands to or from the work, tool or material. It is used to denote time duration for which workers hands remain idle. In two handed process chart the term hold is used in place of storage to represent the activity of holding work, tool or material, i.e. when worker's hand is holding something.
DELAY
HOLD
Such a chart is generally used for respective work of short duration. For example, it can be used in assembly work, machining and clerical jobs.
Working time Idle time
OPERATOR
TIME
MACHINE
Ready
Material
Insert
Occupied
Running
Occupied Occupied
Left Hand description To bolt Pickup bolt To position Hold the belt
4
5
Each movement is serially numbered and indicated by an arrow for its direction. Different colors are used to identify different types of movements e.g. worker with empty trolley or with loaded trolley etc.
Flow Diagram
Production Planning
Gorden and Carson observe production; planning and control involve generally the organization and planning of manufacturing process. Especially it consists of the planning of routing, scheduling, dispatching inspection, and coordination, control of materials, methods machines, tools and operating times. The ultimate objective is the organization of the supply and movement of materials and labour, machines utilization and related activities, in order to bring about the desired manufacturing results in terms of quality, quantity, time and place.
Production planning without production control is like a bank without a bank manager, planning initiates action while control is an adjusting process, providing corrective measures for planned development. Production control regulates and stimulates the orderly how of materials in the manufacturing process from the beginning to the end.
1-Production planning:
Production planning may be defined as the technique of foreseeing every step in a long series of separate operations, each step to be taken at the right time and in the right place and each operation to be performed in maximum efficiency.
work out the quantity of material manpower, machine and money requires for
It helps entrepreneur to producing predetermined level of output in given period of time.
2- Routing:
Under this, the operations, their path and sequence are established. To perform these operations the proper class of machines and personnel required are also worked out.
The main aim of routing is to determine the best and cheapest sequence of operations and to ensure that this sequence is strictly followed.
In small enterprises, this job is usually done by entrepreneur himself in a rather adhoc manner.
3- Scheduling:
It means working out of time that should be required to perform each operation and also the time necessary to perform the entire series as routed, making allowances for all factors concerned.
It mainly concerns with time element and priorities of a job. The pattern of scheduling differs from one job to another which is explained as below:
1. Production schedule: 2. Master Schedule: 3. Manufacturing schedule:
1-Production schedule:
The main aim is to schedule that amount of work
2-Master Schedule:
Scheduling usually starts with preparation of master schedule which is weekly or monthly break-down of the production requirement for each product for a definite time period. This forms a base for all subsequent scheduling acclivities. A master schedule is followed by operator schedule which fixes total time required to do a piece of work with a given machine or which shows the time required to do each detailed operation of a given job with a given machine or process.
3-Manufacturing schedule:
1. It is prepared on the basis of type of manufacturing process involved. 2. It is very useful where single or few products are manufactured repeatedly at regular intervals. 3. Thus it would show the required quality of each product and sequence in which the same to be operated.
4- Loading:
The next step is the execution of the schedule plan as per the route chalked out it includes the assignment of the work to the operators at their machines or work places.
So loading determines who will do the work as routing determines where and scheduling determines when it shall be done. Gantt Charts are most commonly used in small industries in order to determine the existing load and also to foresee how fast a job can be done.
Enterprise can be successful if they have ability to meet delivery order in time which no doubt depends upon production of quality goods in right time.
It makes all the more important for entrepreneur to judge ahead of time what should be done, where and when thus to leave nothing to chance once the work has begun.
Specification of Production requirements Material resources planning (MRP) And Manufacturing Resources Planning (MRP-II)
1- MRP constitutes a set of techniques that use bill of material , inventory data and the master production schedule to calculate requirements for materials. 2- The purpose of MRP is to ensure that materials and components are available in the right quantities and at the right time so that finished products can be completed according to the master production schedule. 3- MRP is often considered as a sub set of inventory control. 4- It is a effective tools for minimizing unnecessary inventory investment without affecting the production schedule. 5- The core of MRP is its relationship with bills of materials and use of MRP records to calculate the time phased release of orders for manufacturing , planning and control system.
Inputs of MRP:
It contains items name ( and Code) , quantity to be purchased and time for completing the production.
Resource available
Development of MPS
Month
August 98
August 98
August 98
August 98
60
100
200
40
Produ 40 ct P5
Produ ct P6 35
80
20
50
25
45
60
MPS for products P4, P5, P6 showing weekly delivery schedule in no. of items.
The structure shows of an assemble product P1 which is assigned level(zero) in the product structure hierarchy. .
It is made of two types of sub-assemblies S1 and S2 ( 2 nos. and 4 nos. each). Each sub assemblies S1 consists of components C1,C2 ,C3 ( in 1,3 and 2 nos. respectively ). Similarly , each sub assembly S2 consists of components C4 and C5 in two and three nos. respectively. Part C2 consist parts D1 and D2 in two and four nos. respectively (level 3).
PRODUCT STRUCTURE
P1
S1(2) S2(4) Level
0 1
C1 (1) C2(3) C3(2) C4(2) C5(3) 2 3
D1(2)
D2(4)
3-Inventory on hand 4-Material on order ( yet to arrive) 5- Customer order for the product
>The inventory status file should be updated regularly . >The updating requires entering the following information (inventory transaction)
Receipt of material Disbursement of inventory Scrap reported
It also contains information such as lot size, lead time, safety stock ands scrap rate. The ordering lead time can be determined from purchasing records and the manufacturing lead time can be determined from the route sheets or operation process charts.
Develop master production schedule Explode bill of materials determine gross part requirement s Determine net part requirements Adjust requirements for scrap allowance
Procurement schedule
Computerised system of MRP- I MRP computer software programme does the following: 1-Determines gross requirement of finished products.
Materials requirement planning (MRP) is an inventory control system used to release production and purchase orders so that the correct item, in the quantity, at the correct time is produced or purchased.
The system has three inputs: the bill of materials (BOM), the master production schedule (MPS) and the inventory file; and one output: orders.
The BOM provides the structure of the product. The MPS indicates when and in what quantities the final products are required. The inventory file contains data on individual product numbers, such as the lead time and number of items in stock. With all this information, the system (usually a computer system) can determine when to start production so that all the components which make up the final product arrive at the right time in the right quantity, so that customer orders can be met.
A common time frame is a week, which is also known as a weekly time bucket.
MRP-II ( MANUFACTURING RESOURCE PLANNING) MRP do not provide a link with other areas of business, such as finance and marketing . For example collection of payments fro customers , billing of suppliers, pricing decision, change of new product design etc. are not directly included. Therefore there is a need to have an integrated system encompassing business functions other than manufacturing . MRP- II is an attempts in this direction. MRP II includes linking of financial and marketing functions to manufacturing function. MRP- II is a computer based system designed to synchronise all the aspects (not just manufacturing) of the business and therby overcoming the limitations of MRP-I.
Manufacturing resource planning (MRP II) is an extension of the MRP system. its act as a planning and scheduling system, linking manufacturing with sales , engineering, purchasing, and finance by adopting a central production plan and one unified data base to plan and update activities of all the functions. The basic elements of the MRP system remain in place, but a host of other modules can be added. These computerised modules can provide useful information to other areas of an organisation. The system can cover materials planning, personnel, purchasing, accounting, marketing and management reporting.
Requirement schedules
Advantages of MRP- II: Improved customer services Improved productivity Reduction in purchase cost
Non availability of basic accurate data Complexity in manufacturing planning and control High initial cost of software. Lack of top management support
Inventory:
There are four common classifications of inventory: Raw materials. Raw materials are components, objects, materials, elements and items which are received by the company, usually from a supplier, which are used in the final product. Work in progress (WIP). Work in progress consists of all the items which are currently being worked on, but are not in a state to be sold or dispatched to a customer. Once an item of raw materials has some action performed on it, it becomes WIP.
Finished goods. Finished goods inventory is the stock of products which are in a position to be sold or dispatched to a customer, and require no further action performed on them.
Consumables. Consumable items are items which are not directly used in the finished product, but are necessary for production. Examples of consumables are spares and supplies. Spares are usually machine parts which are vital to production. Supplies include items such as packaging materials, documentation, and paper.
Inventory:
list of movable good which helps directly or indirectly in the production of goods for sale and to maintain the plant facilities in working conditions. Ex: Raw materials tools, supplies , gauges etc. Classification of inventories:
Direct inventories: Raw materials, In process inventories ( work in progress), purchased part, finished goods. Indirect inventories: 1- Tools: - Drill, hobs, broaches, chasers, lathe tools, milling cutters. 2- Supplies:- Materials used in running the plant- welding, soldering, brushes, maps, oils and greases such as kerosene, files, pins, clips, carbon paper, envelops, letterheads.
MILLING CUTTERS
Lathe Tools
CHASERS & CUTTERS
Inventory Cost:
The costs that are affected ( i.e. , increase or decrease) by the firms decision to maintain a particular level of inventory are called cost associated with inventories or relevant inventory costs. These costs may be classified as: Total Inventory Cost:
1)- Purchase cost 2)- Ordering cost 3)- Inventory carrying cost 4)- Shortage cost
Total Inventory Cost = Purchase cost + Total variable cost of managing the inventory (TIC)
TIC = Purchase cost + Inventory carrying cost + Ordering cost + shortage cost.
1- Purchase cost: The cost purchasing a unit of an item is called as purchase cost . It is the actual price paid for the procurement of items. Its unit of measurement is in Rs. Per unit. The unit price of the item depends on the size of the quantity ordered of purchased ( or manufactured) . Purchase cost = Price per unit X Demand per unit time 2- Ordering Cost: ( inventory procurement cost) . It is the cost of placing an order from a vendor. This includes all costs incurred from calling for quotations to the point at which the item is taken into stock. It consists of the expenditure connected with: Receiving quotations. Processing purchase requisition.
3- carrying cost:
Carrying costs which are also known as holding costs are the costs incurred in maintaining the stores in the firm.
Rent of storage facilities Salaries of personal and related storage expenses Cost of obsolescence Cost of capital Sometimes special tax is to be paid for storing certain items. Cost of pilferage and employing a person for safety.
Shortage cost:Shortage cost = (cost of being short one unit in the inventory) X ( average number of units short in the inventory ) The average number of units short in a planning period is determined by using the following relationship: Average number of units short =
Minimum shortage in the inventory + max. shortage 2
Deterministic models
following:
1- Possibility of placing repeat orders 2- Nature of demand 3- Availability of discount.
4- Single or multiple product manufacture
Inventory models considering the above aspects can be classified as under: A- Static Inventory models:
It is applicable in case where only order can be placed to meet the demand Repeat orders are either impossible or too expensive . Examples perishables goods like breads, vegetables etc, seasonable products like coolers, umbrellas, crackers, sweaters, rain coats etc.
B- Dynamic Inventory Models It is applicable for items where repeat orders can be placed to replenish stock.
(a)- Deterministic models: These are based on the assumption that the demand as well as lead time of an item are deterministic (i.e. known with certainty). (b)- Probabilistic models: These models take into account the variations in demand and lead time of an item.
Assumptions in deterministic models: The demand of the item is known exactly for a given period. The demand of the item occurs uniformly over a period of time. The cost of placing an order is fixed and does not vary with the lot size. Similarly , set up costs are also constant. The inventory carrying charges are directly proportional to the order quantity.
The price per unit is fixed and is independent of the order size ( in case of fixed price inventory models). Orders are received instantaneously (replenishment is instantaneous) The item can be purchased free from restrictions of any kind.
The item has fairly long life, there being no fear of deterioration or spoilage.
A set of approaches used to efficiently integrate Suppliers Manufacturers Warehouses Distribution centers So that the product is produced and distributed
In the right quantities To the right locations And at the right time
System-wide costs are minimized and Service level requirements are satisfied
Goal is to deliver right product to right place at right time in order to maximize profit.
Plan
Source
Make
Deliver
Buy
Suppliers
Manufacturers
Customers
Material Costs
Transportation Costs
Dell Computer => Direct Model => Use of Information Technology >provides suppliers with access to Dells inventories
Established in 1984, Dell experienced supply problems in 1993 and there upon completely redesigned its supply chain process along the lines of what its founder, Michael Dell, called the direct model.
Between 1993 and 1998, Dell's earnings subsequently grew at 65 percent per year.
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First, Dell sells directly to customers, eliminating the wholesaler and retailer. Second, Dell also takes advantage of new information technologies in their communications with suppliers who can access Dell's component inventories, production plans, and forecasts in real time and thus keep their production precisely matched to Dell's needs.
Third, Dell deliberately maintains absolute minimum inventory levels at every stage of production, averaging 4 days overall
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History of Supply Chain Management 1960s - Inventory Management Focus, Cost Control
Major Features of SCM: 1. Material flow. It is in the direction from supplier to customer through the chain. It involves procurement of the materials, transformation of these materials into finished products and distribution of these finished products to the customers. 2. Financial flow. It involves payment options, credit card information, credit terms, payment schedule etc. It is in the direction from customer to supplier as payment for products or services originates from customer and end at supplier. 3. Information flow. It involves product information, demand forecasts, order status report, delivery report, customers communication, etc. Information is always two-way, particularly in ebusiness.
Network Planning
Distribution Strategies
Key Issues
How can integration with partners be achieved? What level of integration is best? What information and processes can be shared? What partnerships should be implemented and in which situations? What are our core supply chain capabilities and which are not? Does our product design mandate different outsourcing approaches? Risk management How are inventory holding and transportation costs affected by product design? How does product design enable
Unit-IV: standard
Quality control :
Meaning, Process control, Statistical Quality Control (SQC) control charts, Single, double and sequential sampling, Introduction to TQM.
Quality control :- Meaning:The word quality refers to the degree of excellence of a product. The quality of a product means the degree of excellence of the characteristics it possesses. It is a relative term, like high, low or inferior grade or in terms of conformity with certain specifications.
1- Fitness for purpose: the components is said to possess good quality, if it works well in the equipment for which it is meant. Quality is thus defined as fitness for purpose. 2- Grade: Quality is a distinguishing feature or grade of the product in appearance, performance , life, reliability, taste, maintainability, etc. this is generally called as quality characteristics.
3- Degree of performance: Quality is the degree to which a specified product is preferred over competing products of equivalent grade, based on comparative test by customers, normally called as customers preference.
Degree of excellence:
Quality is measure of degree of general excellence of the product.
The quality of a product is a measure of fulfillment of the promises made to the customers.
The word control, is used to denote the process of setting standards, measuring the performance and taking corrective action. Control of quality deals with the determination of quality standards and measurement and control necessary to see that the established standards are maintained and practised.
According to J.A. Shubin quality control means the recognition and removal of Identifiable causes or defects and variations from the set standards.
Objectives of Quality Control: To decide about the standard of quality of a product that is easily acceptable to the customer and at the same time this standard should be economical to maintain. To take different measures to improve the standard of quality of product. To take various steps to solve any kind of deviations in the quality of the product during manufacturing.
Advantages of Quality Control: Quality of product is improved which in turn increases sales. Scrap rejection and rework are minimized thus reducing wastage. So the cost of manufacturing reduces. Good quality product improves reputation.
Statistical Quality Control (S.Q.C): Statistics: Statistics means data, a good amount of data to obtain reliable results. The science of statistics handles this data in order to draw certain conclusions.
S.Q.C: This is a quality control system employing the statistical techniques to control quality by performing inspection, testing and analysis to conclude whether the quality of the product is as per the laid quality standards.
Using statistical techniques, S.Q.C. collects and analyses data in assessing and controlling product quality. The technique of S.Q.C. was though developed in 1924 by Dr. Walter A. Shewartan American scientist, it got recognition in industry only second world war. The technique permits a more fundamental control.
Process Control:
From a batch of products manufactured by a certain production process, some of the products are selected at random. Their quality characteristics say (length, diameter, thickness etc.) are measured and classified according to actual dimensions.
If we tabulate these dimensions in order of size (in ascending or descending order) and give the frequencies with which each size occurs, we have a frequency distribution.
If the distribution of observation follows a normal curve, then it is assumed that the variations are due to chance causes and no assignable causes of error are present. The conditions which produced these variations are said to be under control and it is concluded that the process is under statistical control.
On the other hand if the distribution does not follow a normal curve then it is concluded that one or more assignable causes if error are present and the process is not in statistical control.
Statistical quality control can be simply defined as an economic & effective system of maintaining & improving the quality of outputs throughout the whole operating process of specification, production & inspection based on continuous testing with random samples.
Statistical quality control should be viewed as a kit of tools which may influence decisions to the functions of specification, production or inspection.
Control Charts
Walter A. Shewhart
Born March 18, 1891 New Canton, Illinois March 11, 1967 (aged 75) physics, engineering, statistics
Died Fields
Institutio Western Electric ns University of Alma Illinois, University of mater California, Berkeley
History The control chart was invented by Walter A. Shewhart while working for Bell Labs in the 1920s. The company's engineers had been seeking to improve the reliability of their telephony transmission systems. Because amplifiers and other equipment had to be buried underground, there was a business need to reduce the frequency of failures and repairs.
Bell Laboratories (also known as Bell Labs and formerly known as AT&T Bell Laboratories and Bell Telephone Laboratories) is the research and development subsidiary of the French-owned Alcatel-Lucent and previously of the American Telephone & Telegraph Company (AT&T), half-owned through its Western Electric manufacturing subsidiary.
Chart details
A control chart consists of: Points representing a statistic of measurements of a quality characteristic in samples taken from the process at different times. The mean of this statistic using all the samples is calculated. A center line is drawn at the value of the mean of the statistic. The standard error for the mean of the statistic is also calculated using all the samples.
Upper and lower control limits (sometimes called "natural process limits") that indicate the threshold at which the process output is considered statistically 'unlikely' are drawn typically at 3 standard errors from the center line. The chart may have other optional features, including: 1. Upper and lower warning limits, drawn as separate lines, typically two standard errors above and below the center line. 2. Division into zones, with the addition of rules governing frequencies of observations in each zone. 3. Annotation with events of interest, as determined by the Quality Engineer in charge of the process's quality.
Control Charts :
Control charts, in statistical process control are tools used to determine whether a manufacturing or business process is in a state of statistical control. A control chart is a graphical representation of the collected information.
=> The information may pertain to measured quality characteristics or judged quality characteristics of samples. => It detects the variation in processing and warns if there is any departure from the specified tolerance limits.
=> a device to judge whether statistical control has been attained or not.
Types of control charts: 1- Control charts for variables ( measurable quality characteristics) . charts This includes X bar charts, R chart and .
2- Control charts for attributes (judged quality characteristics). This includes : P charts , nP chart, C chart and U chart.
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Objectives of X , R and
charts:
1- X (bar) and R or X (bar) sigma charts are used in combination for the control process. X ( bar) chart shows the centring of the process i.e. it shows the variation in the average of the samples. R chart shows the uniformity or consistency of the process i.e. it shows variations in the ranges of the samples. Sigma Chart shows the variation of the process.
2- The control charts are used to determine whether a given process can meet the existing specifications without a fundamental change in production process.
3- To secure information .to be used in establishing or changing production procedures. 4- To secure information when it is necessary to widen the tolerances.
5- To secure information to be used in establishing or changing inspection procedure or acceptance procedure or both.
6- to provide a basis for current decisions on acceptance or rejection of manufactured or purchased parts.
Any measuring system will have its own inherent variability which should not be increased due to assignable causes such as errors in reading or recording.
Calculation Procedure :
1- Calculate the average X bar and Range R for each subgroup. A good number of samples of items manufactured are collected at random, at different intervals of time and their quality characteristics ( say diameter, thickness, weight, length etc.) are measured. For each sample mean value and the range is calculated .
For example, if a sample contains 5 items whose dimensions are X1, X2,X3,X4, and X5, the sample average.
X (bar) = X1+X2+X3+X4+X5
5
The range is computed by subtracting the lowest value from the highest value. ( Range, R = Highest value smallest value)
R = xmax - xmin
2- Calculate the grand average X double bar and average range R bar. After calculating the average and range of each sub- group the next step is to find X-double bar and R (bar) where X double bar is the average of the X bar values for each sub group. Thesis is the sum of X bar values divided by the number of sub- groups. i.e. X double bar = X N Where X = average of averages And N = number of sub- groups
Introduction to TQM
Total quality management or TQM is an integrative philosophy of management for continuously improving the quality of products and processes.
A comprehensive, organization-wide effort to improve the quality of products and services, applicable to all organizations.
TQM recognises that all businesses require "processes" that enable customer requirements to be met. TQM focuses on the ways in which these processes can be managed - with two key objectives:
1 2
(1) total client satisfaction through quality products and services; and (2) continuous improvements to processes, systems, people, suppliers, partners, products, and services.
Total Quality Management
TQM view:
Improved quality leads to improved productivity.
Continuous Improvement
Principles
Customer Focus
Process Improvement
Total Involvement
Elements
Leadership Education and Training Supportive structure Communications Reward and recognition Measurement
Main Principles of TQM The main principles that underlie TQM are summarised below:
Prevention Prevention is better than cure. In the long run, it is cheaper to stop products defects than trying to find them The ultimate aim is no (zero) defects - or exceptionally low defect levels if a product or service is complicated Better not to produce at all than produce something defective Quality is not just the concern of the production or operations department - it involves everyone, including marketing, finance and human resources Businesses should always be looking for ways to improve processes to help quality Those involved in production and operations have a vital role to play in spotting improvement opportunities for quality and in identifying quality problems
Zero defects