Research Methods

Methods and Techniques Investigation Design Data Analysis and Interpretation

Experimental Methods

An Experiment is a research method in which an independent variable is manipulated and the effect it has on a dependent variable is measured. Extraneous variables are other factors that can have an effect on the DV and therefore are controlled so that a clear cause and effect relationship occurs between the IV and DV. An extraneous variable that exerts an effect on a DV is called a Confounding Variable.

These are bad hmmmkay and we want to design an experiment that avoids them!

A simple experiment compares a control group with an experimental group. In the experimental group, the participants are exposed to the IV but in the control group, the participants are not.

Types of Experiments
Experiments vary depending upon how much control there is over the IV and the setting in which the data is collected.

Laboratory experiment (examples: all nature of memory research)

IV AND environment is controlled by the experimenter + High level of control over extraneous variables make the findings more credible and trustworthy lending towards a clear cause and effect relationship - Findings may be too specific to the laboratory environment and therefore lack ecological validity so the results cannot be generalised.

Field experiment (example: weapon focus study)

IV is manipulated by the experimenter BUT the environment in which the experiment takes place is not controlled + Avoids participant effects because participants are not aware of the study as its conducted in a natural environment thus increasing internal validity - The natural environment makes it hard to control extraneous variables that might have an effect on the DV

Types of Experiments cont

Natural experiment (example: effects of anxiety on EWT)

IV occurs naturally AND the environment is not controlled + allows us to conduct research on the effect of an IV that we wouldnt be able to normally do due to ethical reasons - Participants may be aware they are being studied causing participant effects or demand characteristics IV occurs naturally BUT the environment is controlled + allows us to conduct research on the effect of an IV that we wouldnt be able to normally do due to ethical reasons - Lack of control over the IV means we cannot claim a causal relationship due to potential EVs

Quasi-experiment (example: age and capacity of memory)

Pg. 83 Research Method ?s 3.9 (1-8) Pg. 85 Research Method ?s 3.12 (1a-e)

Extraneous Variables

There are many different types of extraneous variables. If EVs are not controlled they can have an effect on the DV that is not directly related to the IV, thus confounding our results. Participant Variables

Situational Variables

A characteristic of the individual that can effect the results, such as age, intelligence, motivation, previous experience and gender. The use of random allocation and a repeated measures design can help control participant variables. Features of a research situation or environment can effect the results, such as order effects, time of day, temperature and noise. Through the use of standardised procedures in a lab environment can help control situational variables. An experimenters expectations or biosocial/psychosocial characteristics can influence participants behaviour. Investigator effects are a source of bias introduced by the researcher which can lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy that confirms their original beliefs. A demand characteristic could also exist. Its a flaw in the procedures which serves as a trigger for participants to act in a certain way. A double-blind design is used to control experimenter effects.

Experimenter Variables

Extraneous Variables cont

Participant Reactivity

Participants may actively seek clues as to how to behave instead of behaving naturally. Social desirability bias occurs when participants wish to present themselves in the best possible way and as a consequence may act according to what is socially acceptable instead of being honest and acting on their own personal preference. Hawthorne Effect describes how participants performance on tasks may change not due to the IV but by simply knowing they are being observed. Participant Effects can be controlled through the use of singleblind or double-blind research designs. One effective way of exposing potential extraneous variables is by first conducting a pilot study, which is a small scale dummy run of the experiment. If it goes well, participants similar to those in the pilot study will be invited to take part in the final study. If extraneous variables are exposed, adjustments can be made to the standardised procedures to help control them. Pg. 79 Research Method ?s 3.7 (2a-b)

Validity

Validity refers to how legitimate or dependable a claim is. An investigation has good internal validity if the procedures are well designed to achieve the research aim. It measures how much the observed effect (DV) was due to the IV or other variables. External validity refers to how well we can generalize the findings in the following ways...

Mundane realism refers to how an experiment mirrors the real world. If an experiment is too artificial or contrived, people will not act naturally. In summary, validity can be effected due to lack of control (internal validity), realism and generalisability (external validity)

Ecological validity findings can be generalized to other settings Historical validity findings can endure over time Population validity findings can be generalized to people other than those in the original research

Hypothesis

A hypothesis states what you believe to be true. It is a testable statement of the relationship between two variables.

A directional hypothesis states a direction of your results. A non-directional hypothesis states there will be no direction between two variables and effect is unknown.

Example People will remember more if they study in short bursts. Example Recall is different between people who study in short bursts compared to longer bursts.

Operationalised hypothesis specifies a set of behaviours and makes them measurable.

Example People get more questions right on a test of recall when they study in short ten minute bursts than when studying for longer 30 minute session.
Research Method ?s Pg 75 1a-f

How will I run my experiment?

Most simple experiments involve 2 conditions these are 2 versions of the independent variable. e.g. Using words or pictures to learn a list of items.
Condition 1 Condition 2

Words

Pictures

There are 3 different ways to carry out the experiment with participants. These are known as Experimental Designs
Hmmm ...

Independent groups design

Repeated measures design

Matched pairs design

Participants only take part in one condition of the experiment (2 separate groups)
Words
Pictures

Participants take part in both conditions of the experiment (1 group)

Words Pictures

Participants are matched in each condition for characteristics that may have an effect on their performance. e.g. A memory test

Experimental Design

Independent Groups Design

Repeated Measures Design

+ Quick and efficient design as all that is required is to randomly allocate participants to two conditions. - Requires a lot of participants so is more demanding in regards to recruitment and time compared to the repeated measures design. + Fewer participants are needed compared to either of the other two designs making it less time consuming. - Depending on which condition a participant does first, order effects can occur. This can lead to boredom or better performance. To overcome order effects, counterbalancing is used to ensure that both conditions are tested first or second in equal amounts. + Because participants only take part in one condition of the study, the possibility of demand characteristics are reduced. - Requires a lot of participants so is more demanding in regards to recruitment and time compared to the repeated measures design. Pg. 76 Research Method ?s 3.6 (4-9)

Matched Pairs Design

Selecting Participants: Sampling

There

are three different types of sampling techniques used to acquire participants for research:

Opportunity Sampling the researcher will choose people that are available or willing to participate based on specific criteria that may or may not be required for the research. Volunteer Sampling participants elect themselves to volunteer to participate in research, usually through an advertisement. Random Sampling individuals are assigned an identifier and are than randomly allocated to a particular experimental condition. All participants have an equal chance to be chosen.

Sampling: Techniques

Opportunity Sample

Volunteer Sample

+ easy and quick means to locate a group of participants compared to other techniques. - Inevitably biased because your sample is drawn from a small part of the target population and may risk excluding others.
+ you have access to a variety of participants which makes the sample size more representative. - Biased sample because they are likely to be more motivated to complete tasks + Unbiased as all members of the target population have an equal chance of being selected - If sample is too small, you may end up with a biased sample (more boys than girls)

Random Sample

Case Studies

In depth study of an individual, but can be a family unit, a school or neighborhood. Methods of data collecting can be questionnaires, interviews, cognitive tests, observations and clinical assessments.

+ Provide rich and detailed accounts that give us a deeper level of understanding that can lead to new research. - Specific to an individual and cannot be generalized to wider populations - The large amounts of data collected can lead to subjective interpretation depending upon the researchers aims.

Ethical Issues

Deception participants should never be misled without very strong scientific or medical justification. Intentional deception over the purpose or nature of research should be avoided whenever possible. Participants require INFORMED CONSENT so they can decide whether they want to participate or not. Protection from harm investigators have a responsibility to protect the participants from physical, emotional or mental harm. The risk of harm must be no greater than in ordinary life. Confidentiality participants data should be treated as confidential and not be shared with anyone outside of the experiment. Within, the study, numbers should be allocated instead of names. Right to withdraw participants should be given the right to withdraw from a study at any time, especially if it involves deception or lack of informed consent.

Ethical Issues: How to deal with them

Deception a cost benefit analysis can be done to determine if the cost of deception is worth the benefits of potential findings. Also, debriefing can be done. This is when a researcher informs the participants the true nature of the study. Participants should leave the study feeling the same or better about themselves. You can overcome a lack of informed consent by obtaining

Protection from harm - Before any research is conducted, psychologists must seek guidance and approval from ethical committees and follow the BPS or APA ethical guidelines and code of conduct. Confidentiality do not record the names or personal details and assign numbers to the participants. Right to withdraw simply tell the participants that they have the right to withdraw at any time.
pg. 71 RMQs 3.2 identify ethical issue and suggest way of dealing with it

Presumptive consent if other people from a similar background state that they would be willing to participate, it is unlikely that you will upset the actual participants. Prior general consent participants agree before the study begins that they are aware deception exists.

Self-Reporting Techniques: Questionnaires

A set of questions, in written form, designed to collect information about a topic(s). A good questionnaire follows three guiding principles:

Strengths/Weaknesses + Once the questionnare is designed, you can collect a lot of information from a large number of people easily + Respondents may feel more willing to reveal personal information compared to an interview

Clarity reader needs to understand what is being asked. There should be no ambiguity Non-bias any bias (leading question) could lead the respondent to a particular answer or be influenced by social desirability bias. Easy to analyse questions should be written so data can be collected easily. Open ended questions (What do you like most about your job?) makes this more difficult, whereas, closed questions (provide a list of possible answers) limit the range of possible answers making analysing the data faster and easier.

- Answers may not be truthful due to boredom or SDB

- Biased sample due to only certain types of people completing it

Self-Reporting Techniques: Interviews

A set of questions given face to face, designed to collect information about a topic(s). Structured interview the questions are decided in advance, whereas, an Unstructured interview starts out with some general questions but allows the interviewees answers guide further questioning. Strengths/Weaknesses

Unstructured Interview

Structured Interview

+ Can access information that may not be revealed by predetermined questions, therefore, more detailed information can be obtained - To increase objectivity, interviewers need to be well trained to avoid interviewer bias, this is makes it more expensive to produce reliable interviews + Can easily be repeated because questions are standardised and as a result are easier to analyse. - Interviewees expectations may influence the answers, therefore.