Chemical Hazards and Reactions

Chemical Hazards and Reactions
Chemical hazards and reactions
Introduction
Chemical hazards and reactions:
Chemicals are the most common and significant health hazards Chemicals can be hazardous for numerous reasons and can combine with other chemicals to make new hazards All hazards must be taken into account when using and storing chemicals.
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Objectives
At the end of this module, you will be able to:
Recognize chemical hazards commonly encountered in the field Provide examples of physical and chemical characteristics of contaminants Explain warning properties of various chemical hazards Describe how to evaluate and control these hazards.
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The degree of hazard associated with a particular chemical will depend on:

Its physical properties Its toxicity The way it is used The environment in which it is encountered.
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Physical Classification
Chemicals may be found in solid, liquid, aerosol, or gas and vapor form. Solids Aerosols The degree of danger varies according to the form of the chemical and the factors previously discussed.
Liquids
Vapors
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Solids

Not all forms of a chemical pose a health hazard. For example, a lead pipe is not a significant health hazard. However, the lead can become a human health hazard if the pipe is sanded or welded, producing lead dust or fumes. The dust or fumes can become airborne and be inhaled, or it can leach into water and be ingested.
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Solids

A chemical may be hazardous even in solid form. For example, individuals who are sensitized to nickel may develop dermatitis from skin contact with the metal. Fuming solids emit toxic vapors that may be inhaled. Some materials, such as pesticides, can evaporate directly from solid form. Some solids are not a hazard alone but become hazardous when they come into contact with other chemicals (e.g., acid in contact with iron can release hydrogen gas).
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Aerosols
Aerosol is a term used to describe fine particles (solid or liquid) suspended in air. Examples of aerosols include dust, fumes, mist, fog, smoke, and smog. Knowing how various aerosols are generated will help you anticipate where aerosol hazards may exist in the field Aerosols may be a hazard to the eyes, skin, and the respiratory system.
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Liquids
Many liquids are hazardous in contact with the skin. They either damage the skin or they are easily absorbed through the skin. It is important to remember that chemicals that can damage or be absorbed through the skin will have this effect on all skin, not just the hands. The degree of hazard associated with a liquid depends on its characteristics and how it is handled.
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Liquids
For example, inhalation is the primary route for a chemical to enter the body. Its vapor pressure is important in determining the liquid degree of hazard. Liquids with a low vapor pressure may create a low airborne concentration. Liquids with a high vapor pressure may produce high airborne concentrations. The hazard level of an airborne concentration depends in part on the chemical's toxicity.
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Liquids

Some chemicals help other contaminants to penetrate the skin. Dimethyl sulfoxide(DMSO) is extremely well absorbed and is used in medicine to transport drugs through the skin. Liquids present a splash hazard. Appropriate protective equipment (e.g., goggles, faceshield) and clothing (e.g., gloves, coveralls) must be worn to prevent contact with eyes and skin. Liquids present a splash hazard.
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Liquids
Appropriate protective equipment (e.g., goggles, faceshield) and clothing (e.g., gloves, coveralls) must be worn to prevent contact with eyes and skin. Some liquids combine easily with other chemicals to produce hazardous substances. Household bleach, combined with ammonia-based cleaning solutions, produces a substance that is much more hazardous than either of the two original components
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Vapors
A gas is a state of matter in which the molecules are unrestricted by cohesive forces. Vapors are the evaporation products of chemicals that are normally liquid at room temperature. Routes of entry associated with gases and vapors are inhalation, and eye or skin exposure.
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Test Your Knowledge
The degree of a chemical hazard depends upon certain properties. Click on the physical classifications which are potential skin hazards.

Vapors Solids Liquids Gases

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Physical and Chemical Characteristics
Autoignition Specific Gravity Vapor Pressure Melting Point Explosive Limits
Solubility Vapor Density Boiling Point Flashpoint
Knowing the physical and chemical characteristics of the chemicals you anticipate finding during a field activity can help you recognize potential hazards and appropriately protect yourself. You can find the details on the physical and chemical characteristics by referring to the chemical's Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS). MSDSs must be readily available in work areas where the hazardous materials are being used. More information about Material Safety Data Sheets is found in the Hazard Communication module.
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Autoignition Temperature
The temperature at which a product can undergo spontaneous ignition is called the autoignition temperature. This temperature is very high - commonly in the hundreds of degrees.
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Specific Gravity/Density
Specific gravity (SpG) is the ratio of the density of a substance (at a given temperature) to the density of water at the temperature of its maximum density. Numerically, SpG is equal to the density in g/cc, but is expressed as a pure number without units. If the SpG of a substance is greater than 1 (the SpG of water), it will sink in water (e.g., methylene chloride). The substance will float on water if its SpG is less than 1 (e.g., oil/petroleum products). This is important when considering containment, cleanup, disposal and treatment alternatives.
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Specific Gravity/Density
Specific gravity (SpG) is the ratio of the density of a substance (at a given temperature) to the density of water at the temperature of its maximum density. Numerically, SpG is equal to the density in g/cc, but is expressed as a pure number without units. If the SpG of a substance is greater than 1 (the SpG of water), it will sink in water (e.g., methylene chloride). The substance will float on water if its SpG is less than 1 (e.g., oil/petroleum products).
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Vapor Pressure
The pressure exerted by a vapor against the sides of a closed container is called vapor pressure.
Vapor pressure is temperature dependent. As temperature increases, so does the vapor pressure. Thus, more liquid evaporates, vaporizes or volatilizes.
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Vapor Pressure
The lower the boiling point of the liquid, the greater the vapor pressure it will exert at a given temperature.
Values for vapor pressure are most often given as millimeters of mercury (mm Hg) at a specific temperature. Usually the higher the vapor pressure, the more volatile the substance.
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Melting Point
Melting point is the temperature at which a solid, when heated, changes to a liquid.
This temperature is also the freezing point, since a liquid can change phase to a solid. The proper terminology depends on the direction of the phase change. If a substance has been transported at a temperature that maintains a solid phase, then a change in temperature may cause the solid to melt.
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Melting Point
A particular substance may exhibit totally different properties depending on phase.

One phase could be inert while the other is highly reactive.
Thus, it is imperative to recognize the possibility of a substance changing phase due to changes in the ambient temperature.
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Solubility
The ability of a solid, liquid, gas or vapor to dissolve in a solvent is solubility.

An insoluble substance can be physically mixed or blended in a solvent for a short time but is unchanged when it finally separates. The solubility of a substance is independent of its density or specific gravity.
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Solubility
Solubility is important when determining health effects, reactivity, dispersion, and methods of cleanup and treatment.
Solubility is generally expressed in parts per million (ppm) or as a percentage (0-100%).
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Vapor Density
Material Ammonia Ethelyene AIR
Vapor Density 0.59 0.972 1.0
The density of a gas or vapor can be compared to the density of the ambient atmosphere.
Vapor or gas that is greater in density than the ambient air tends to settle to the lowest point. Vapor density close to the density of air or lower tends to disperse in the atmosphere. In settling, dense vapor (v.d. >1) creates many hazards. If the vapor displaces enough air to reduce the atmospheric concentration of oxygen below 16%, asphyxia may result.
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Butane
Freon-12
2.04
4.17
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Vapor Density
Material Ammonia Ethelyene AIR
Vapor Density 0.59 0.972 1.0
If the vapor is toxic, inhalation problems predominate even if the atmosphere is not oxygen deficient.
If a substance is explosive and very dense, the fire/explosive hazard may be in the form of vapor trails which can spread far from the liquid. Flashback can occur if an ignition source is present.
Butane
Freon-12
2.04
4.17
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Boiling Point
Boiling point is the temperature at which liquid changes to a vapor, or the temperature when the pressure of the liquid equals atmospheric pressure. The opposite change in phase is the condensation point. A major consideration with toxic substances is how they enter the body. With high-boiling-point liquids, the most common entry is by body contact (skin absorption). Low-boiling-point liquids are most commonly inhaled.
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Flashpoint
Flashpoint is the lowest temperature at which a liquid gives off enough vapor to form an ignitable mixture with air and produce a flame when an ignition source is present. If the ambient temperature is right, then the materials may give off enough vapor at its surface to allow ignition by an open flame or spark. When a vapor does ignite, combustion can continue as long as the temperature remains at or above the flashpoint.
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Explosive Limits
The range of concentrations of gases in air which will support the explosive process is bounded by measurable limits called Upper Explosive Limits (UEL) or Upper Flammable Limit (UFL) and Lower Explosive Limits (LEL) or Lower Flammable Limit (LFL).
The flammable range is the optimal chemical fuel concentration in air for the ignition and the sustenance of combustion. The lowest concentration of fuel in this range is the LEL/LFL.
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Explosive Limits
The highest ratio that is flammable is the UEL/UFL.

Concentrations less than the LEL/LFL are not flammable because there is too little fuel, that is, the mixture is too lean to burn. Concentrations greater than the UEL/UFL are not flammable because there is too much fuel displacing the oxygen (resulting in too little oxygen). The mixture is too rich to burn.
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Test Your Knowledge
Vapor pressure is the pressure exerted by a vapor against the sides of a closed container. If vapor pressure is temperature dependent, what does a container of liquid with the sides pushed out mean?

The container was exposed to cold temperatures. The container was exposed to heat. The container is leaking. The container is old.
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Warning Properties
Warning properties, such as those shown below, are examples of characteristics that could alert you to the presence of a chemical in the air.

Odor threshold Color of product Other senses
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Odor Threshold
The odor threshold is the airborne concentration at which a hazardous chemical can be detected by smell. This concentration of gas or vapor is expressed as parts per million parts (ppm) of air. This odor threshold is considered to be one of the warning properties of gases and vapors but must always be used with caution because of variations between individuals and their senses of smell. Allergies, head colds, and olfactory fatigue also can reduce one's ability to smell.
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Odor Threshold

Ammonia is a good example of a chemical with a useful odor threshold. Some individuals can detect ammonia at 5 ppm which is below the average of 17 ppm. It is also 10 times lower than its OSHA Permissible Exposure Limit (PEL). Since the odor threshold can warn you well before the Threshold Limit Value (TLV) and PEL are reached, ammonia is said to have adequate warning properties. Another reference indicates that Methyl Formate has an odor threshold of 2,000 ppm, which is 20 times higher than its PEL of 100 ppm. Thus, it is dangerous to rely on methyl formate's odor as a warning property.
Material
Acetone Ammonia
Odor Threshold (ppm)

62 5
PEL (ppm)
1000 50
Hydrazine
1,1,2 - Tricholoroethelyene Methyl Formate Hydrogen Sulfide (H2S)
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82 2000 0.3
1
100 100 10 (ceiling limit)
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Odor Threshold

Some chemicals can be detected easily by smell initially but can then cause olfactory fatigue or the loss of ability to smell the substance. H2S causes olfactory fatigue and causes paralysis of the olfactory nerves. Relying on sense of smell can provide a false and potentially fatal sense of security with an extremely toxic gas. Never use your nose as a quantifier of chemical concentration or as a device to determine whether or not the air is safe.
Material
Acetone Ammonia
Odor Threshold (ppm)

62 5
PEL (ppm)
1000 50
Hydrazine
1,1,2 - Tricholoroethelyene Methyl Formate Hydrogen Sulfide (H2S) 5/5/2012
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82 2000
1
100 100 10 (ceiling limit)
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0.3
Color of Product
Color can present a visual indication of the presence of a potentially hazardous chemical. Two examples are fuming nitric acid, which creates a red cloud, and chlorine gas, which has a greenish color. Both of these materials are highly toxic.
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Other Senses
Mild irritation of the eyes, nose, or throat can be a useful warning property if it occurs at a concentration that does not produce other harmful or toxic effects.
Some chemicals will produce a taste before, or instead of, odor or irritation.
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Test Your Knowledge
Odor threshold is the concentration at which a hazardous chemical can be detected by smell. However, ________________ impair(s) the body's ability to smell.

Allergies A head cold Olfactory fatigue All of the above

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Chemical Use
The way a chemical is used will have a significant influence on the degree of hazard associated with its use.
Careful review of the process and a walk-through inspection of the work area will provide useful information to help anticipate potential exposure points.
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Other Environmental Factors
Four environmental factors that can have an impact on potential hazards are:

Wind Humidity Precipitation Temperature
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Test your knowledge:

Effect
Precipitation
Increases or deceases the generation of static electricity Can cause incompatible reactions Changes the air quality by spreading air contaminants Can increase evaporation rates 5/5/2012
Environmental Factor
Temperature Humidity Wind
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Test your knowledge:

Effect
Precipitation
Increases or deceases the generation of static electricity Can cause incompatible reactions Changes the air quality by spreading air contaminants Can increase evaporation rates 5/5/2012
Environmental Factor
Temperature Humidity Wind
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Fire and Explosion Hazards
During field work you may be exposed to on-site materials that are flammable, burn rapidly or are explosive. Such materials may also be present as a part of your own work: either in the emissions or discharges being monitored, in the chemicals used for field test procedures, or in the solvents used for cleaning sampling apparatus.
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Combustion and Fire

Combustion is any chemical process accompanied by the emission of light and heat. When a flame is produced, as well as light and heat, the combustion process is known as fire. Some fires can be deceiving. An alcohol fire can go undetected during daylight because the flame is invisible. A fire requires four components:

Combustible material (fuel source) Oxidizing substance (usually the oxygen in the atmosphere) Ignition energy (heat or spark) Chain reaction (chemical).
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Combustible Materials and Contributing Factors
The following factors contribute to the occurrence of a fire or explosion of combustible materials:

Vapor pressure Area of material from which evaporation can occur Amount of material needed to produce flammable concentrations Temperature of the material Ambient temperature Specific gravity Vapor density Oxygen concentration Source of energy for ignition Ventilation.
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Flammable Materials
Four types of flammable materials are shown below:
Flammable Liquids Flammable Gases Flammable Solids Pyrophoric Liquids

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Flammable Liquids
Examples of Flammable Liquids
Gasoline
Acetone
Lacquer thinner Methyl ethyl ketone
The U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT), the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), and the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) have established definitions for flammability based on the flashpoint of a material.
Isopropyl alcohol
DOT defines flammable liquids as having flashpoints below 140F. OSHA and NFPA define flammable liquids as having flashpoints below 100F.
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Flammable Gases
Examples of Flammable Gases
Hydrogen
A compressed gas is considered flammable when:

A mixture of 13% or less with air forms a flammable mixture - OR The flammable range with air is wider than 12% regardless of the lower flammable limit.
Methane
Acetylane
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Flammable Solids
Examples of Flammable Solids
Metallic Magnesium Dust Aluminum Dust Non-Metallic Camphor Red Phosphorous

Many metals and nonmetals have fire-related hazardous properties and nearly all will burn under certain conditions.
Flammable solids can be readily ignited through friction and retained heat from manufacturing or processing.
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Pyrophoric Liquids
Examples of Pyrophoric Liquids
Organmetallic compounds Dimethyl zinc Tributyl Aluminum
A pyrophoric liquid is any liquid that ignites spontaneously in dry or moist air below 130F.
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Explosives and Ordnance
Explosives:
Explosives are substances that undergo a very rapid chemical transformation producing large amounts of gases and heat. Ordnance refers to explosive military weapons and ammunition.
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Ordnance:
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Explosives
Explosives produce gases like nitrogen, oxygen, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, and steam. Due to the heat produced, these gases rapidly expand at velocities exceeding the speed of sound creating both a shock wave and noise.

Low or Deflagrating High or Detonating

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Low or Deflagrating Explosive Hazards
Rate of deflagration is up to 1000 feet per second -- slower than high explosives.
The combustion process forms the shock wave. Examples: smokeless powder, photographic flash powders, solid rocket fuel.
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High or Detonating Explosive Hazards
The rate of detonation can be as high as four miles per second.

A shock wave may be followed by combustion because the gases produced are flammable.
Primary high explosives may be detonated by shock, heat, or friction producing a detonative wave in an extremely short period of time.
Examples are: lead azide, mercury fulminate, and lead styphnate.
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High or Detonating Explosive Hazards
Secondary high explosives generally need a booster to cause detonation.

They are relatively insensitive to shock, heat, or friction.
Examples are: Tetryl, cyclonite, dynamite, and TNT.
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Ordnance
Whenever the presence of unexploded ordnance (UXO) such as grenades, shells, mines, and other explosive devices is a possibility, personnel and support shall be provided with equipment necessary to locate, identify, recover/remove/dispose, and consolidate all ordnance or energetic items from work areas. These efforts shall be conducted in a safe and environmentally sound manner by qualified and trained personnel (e.g., Army, bomb squad). Prior to starting work, it is recommended that all field personnel attend general orientation sessions that include lectures and visual training aids covering the various types of ordnance.
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Preventing Fires and Explosions
Fires and explosions can be prevented by evaluating possible hazards and taking measures to eliminate and control hazard sources.
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Hazard Evaluation
Identify which materials may be present and get information from reliable and knowledgeable sources on their hazards. Use instruments (combustible gas indicators) to see if there is a flammable concentration of vapors or gases in the working area. (Note: Certain field equipment and instrumentation that is battery or line-powered is not safe for use in flammable atmospheres because the electrical elements are not protected from exposure to flammable vapors or gases, or combustible dusts.) Take precautions as if the hazards do exist even if you are not sure.
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Hazard Control
FUEL OXYGEN HEAT CHAIN REACTION
To prevent the combustion process, measures must be taken to reduce or eliminate one or more of the four components (fuel, oxygen, heat, chemical chain reaction) needed for combustion. Safe work practices and controls should especially be used when sampling, handling or working with flammable materials.
The four combustion components are identified by the words fuel, oxygen, heat, and "chain reaction". Click on the words to review these control measures.
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Fuel
Remove the fuel source if possible. Ventilate the area to reduce or eliminate high vapor concentrations. Cover the fuel with a non-flammable substance (e.g., fire-fighting foam) to prevent mixture with air. Control vapor trails to prevent flashback. Control vapor emissions.
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Oxygen
Oxygen is the most difficult portion of a fire to control because it is always present (20.9%) in the air. Oxygen rich atmospheres (> 23.5%) present additional hazards (hotter burn, increased likelihood of ignition) that can be lowered by utilizing dilution ventilation (blowing).
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Heat

Control all ignition sources by using explosion-proof lighting equipment and spark-resistant tools. Extinguish and prohibit open flames and spark-producing equipment in the work area. Sources of ignition include matches, cigarette lighters, electrical switches and equipment, welding sparks, engines and catalytic converters on motor vehicles. Control temperature when possible. Bond and ground all equipment. Metal to metal contact is essential and can be accomplished by using grounding rods or metal water pipes (cold). Scrape painted surfaces to ensure proper connections.
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Chemical Chain Reaction
Excess heat from the exothermic reaction of combustion radiates back to fuel to produce vapors and cause selfignition. Three factors control the occurrence of self-heating and selfignition resulting from uninhibited chain reactions: Rate of heat generation. Reduce heat by eliminating the ignition source and applying fire suppressants (water, chemical agents) Effects of ventilation. Increase ventilation to carry away excess heat or decrease ventilation to eliminate oxygen Insulating effects of immediate surroundings. Avoid piling combustible materials in confined spaces; separate burning materials and remove insulating materials.
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Static Electricity
Static electricity is generated by contact and separation of materials, such as particulates moving through a stack, gas flowing from a nozzle at high velocity, or pouring or spraying of non-conducting liquids or solids.
Static electricity is also generated when:

Materials flow through pipes, hoses, ducts A belt runs over a pulley A person walks across a floor. Static electricity accumulates to higher voltages in atmospheres with low humidity and during dry weather.
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Static Electricity Prevention
It is important to recognize activities that generate static electricity since it can provide sufficient energy to ignite flammable concentrations of gases and vapors. Practical measures to prevent accumulation or allow discharge of static electricity in field activities include the following:

Grounding all probes used for stack sampling Providing a bonding connection between metal containers when flammable gases or liquids are transferred or poured Wearing footwear with adequate conductivity for the conditions.
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Test Your Knowledge
What is a difference between detonating and deflagrating explosives?
Deflagrating is generally combustion followed by a shock wave Detonating explosives have a detonation rate of 1000 feet per second, and deflagrating have a rate of 4 feet per second Detonation can only be caused by shock, heat, or friction and deflagration can only occur if there is a booster None of the above
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Corrosive Hazards
Corrosive material, solid or
liquid, may destroy body tissue, metal, and plastic upon contact. Common corrosives include halogens, acids, and bases.
EPA RCRA regulations classify a waste material as corrosive if the pH is less than or equal to 2.0 acidic or above 12.5 basic.
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Corrosion/pH
Corrosion is a process of material degradation or the ability of a material to increase the hydrogen ion or hydronium ion concentration of another material.
The pH of a solution is the hydrogen ion concentration. Measurements of pH are valuable because they can be quickly done on-site (e.g., pH paper, pH meter), providing immediate information on the corrosive hazard.
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Corrosives
Examples
Acids Acetic acid Hydrochloric acid Nitric acid Bases Ammonium hydroxide Potassium hydroxide Sodium hydroxide
Acids Corrosives which form the greatest number of hydrogen ions are the strongest acids. Bases Corrosives which form the greatest number of hydroxide ions are the strongest bases. Bases are also called alkaline materials or by the generic term caustic. Halogens Corrosives which are most often found in the gaseous state. They are considered corrosive because contact can lead to burns, irritations, and destruction of organic tissues such as skin and lungs.
Halogens Bromine Chlorine Flourine
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Practical Considerations
When dealing with corrosive materials in the field, it is imperative to determine:

How toxic is the corrosive material? Is it an irritant or does it cause severe burns? What kind of structural damage does it do, and what other hazards can it lead to? What protective equipment is needed to minimize exposure? Are emergency flushing facilities or equipment nearby (e.g., safety showers, eyewashes)? What specific handling procedures can be used to minimize exposure?
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Reactives
A reactive material is one that can undergo a chemical reaction under certain specified conditions. The following are some examples of reactive materials:

Oxidants Organic peroxides Water reactives Pyrophoric materials.
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Reactives
Oxidants Organic Peroxides Water Reactives Pyrophoric Materials
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Oxidants

An oxidant is any material that spontaneously releases oxygen.

Oxidants are extremely heat and flame sensitive and may provide oxygen to an existing fire causing a hotter, more intense burn. Examples are:
Chlorates Chlorites Nitrates Nitrites Permangates Peroxides Persulfates.
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Organic Peroxides
Organic peroxides are a type of oxidizing substance that can be shock/heat sensitive, flammable, and potentially explosive.
Examples are:

Benzoyl peroxide Methyl ethyl ketone peroxide Peroxyacetic acid.
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Water Reactives
These reactive materials are usually flammable solids that will react in varying degrees with water or humid air.
Examples are:

Calcium carbide Metallic sodium.
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Pyrophoric Materials
These materials are capable of igniting spontaneously when exposed to moist or dry air at or below 130 F. They will also ignite in air at or below normal room temperatures in the absence of added heat, shock, or friction. An example of a pyrophoric material is titanium dichloride.
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Compressed Gases
A compressed gas refers to a chemical which is typically stored under pressure in cylinders.
Compressed gases are often shipped and stored as liquids (under pressure at low temperature) or gases (under high pressure). Compressed gases can be flammable, corrosive, toxic, reactive or they may exhibit various combinations of these traits.
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Compressed Gases
Compressed Gases
Cryogenics (liquid) Hydrogen Helium Argon Oxygen Nitrogen Liquified Natural Gas (LNG Liquified Gases Anhydrous ammonia Chlorine LPG (propane, propylene, butane) Vinyl chloride Gases Under Pressure Carbon dioxide Oxygen Nitrous oxide Air Nitrogen Helium Natural gas
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BLEVE
A highly dangerous condition which can occur when a container of liquified gas is exposed to a fire is known as BLEVE (boiling liquid expanding vapor explosion). BLEVEs occur due to container metal fatigue combined with a tremendous increase in pressure.
The container breakup can be explosive, releasing contents in an instant and rocketing the container shell hundreds of feet.
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Chemical Reactions/Compatibility
Understanding chemical reactions is important in protecting yourself from the hazards they may present. Listed below are five characteristics of chemical reactions.

Types Exothermic/Endothermic Incompatibility Rate Compatibility
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Types

A chemical reaction is the interaction of two or more substances, resulting in chemical changes. Chemical reactions usually occur in one of the following ways:
Combination: A + B -> AB
Combination to either a more hazardous or innocuous substance
Decomposition: AB -> A + B
Breakdown to either a more hazardous or innocuous substance
Single Replacement: A + BC -> B + AC Double Replacement: AB + CD -> AD + CB

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Exothermic/Endothermic
Exothermic:
Exothermic chemical reactions give off heat and can be the most dangerous.
Endothermic:
A separate source of heat is required to maintain endothermic chemical reactions. Removing the heat source stops the reaction.
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Incompatibility
The chart below lists hazards due to chemical reactions (incompatibilities).
Hazard
Generation of heat Fire Explosion Toxic gas or vapor production Flammable gas or vapor production Formation of a substance with greater toxicity that the reactants Pressurization of closed vessels Solubilization of toxic substances Violent polymerization
Chemical Reaction Example

Acid and water Hydrogen sulfide and calcium hypochlorite Picric acid and sodium hydroxide Sulfuric acid and plastic Acid and metal Chlorine and ammonia mixed together form the hazardous gas, chloramine Fire extinguisher Hydrochloric acid and chromium Ammonia and acrylonitrile, acrolein and water
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Rate
The rate at which a chemical reaction occurs depends on the following factors:
Surface area of reactants available at the reaction site - for example, a large chunk of coal is combustible but coal dust can be explosive Physical state of reactant - solid, liquid, or gas Concentration of reactants Temperature Pressure Presence of a catalyst.
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Compatibility
If two or more hazardous materials remain in contact indefinitely without reaction, they are compatible.
Incompatibility, however, does not necessarily indicate a hazard. For example, dilute acids and bases can mix and neutralize each other to salts and water. On the other hand, a strong acid and base mix can be a hazard as it may react violently.
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Testing/Determination

The identity of unknown reactants must be determined by chemical analysis to establish compatibility. Sometimes it is impossible to ascertain the identity of a waste due to time and money constraints. In this event, simple tests must be performed to determine the nature of the material or mixture. Chemical test strips (SpilFyter), pH paper, and hazard categorization (HazCat) kits can be used to assist in classifying and possibly identifying unknowns. Two varieties of HazCat kits exist; a wet chemistry type and colorimetric detector tube-based.
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Test Your Knowledge
Which of the following corrosives forms the greatest number of hydrogen ions?

Acids Halogens Bases

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Radiation Hazards

Radiation hazards are typically considered to be physical rather than chemical. However, radioactive materials may exist in combination with hazardous chemicals as mixed or special waste in a laboratory, at a facility or at a hazardous waste site, so both hazardous characteristics must be considered. A general overview of the hazards of radiation is included here. For more information on radiation hazards, refer to your Radiation Protection Program.
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Radiation Hazards
Types of Radiation Radiation Units Detection and Measurement
Biological Effects Exposure Control External Radiation
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Types of Radiation
Radiation exists in both natural and man-made forms. There are two general categories of radiation:
Non-ionizing: Radiation that imparts enough energy to remove electrons from one orbital shell to another of higher energy (e.g., microwaves, ultraviolet light) Ionizing radiation: Radiation that has sufficient energy to remove electrons from an atom (i.e., alpha and beta particles, gamma X-rays).
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Radiation Units
Radiation Units
Name Curie Roentgen Roentgen Equivalent in Man Radiation Absorbed Dose Symb ol Ci R REM RAD
The following are the most commonly used units of radiation:
Curie (Ci) is a special unit for the activity of a substance which is measured in terms of disintegrations per unit time Roentgen (R) is a unit for exposure that gives the number of ionizations caused by photons in air REM (Roentgen Equivalent in Man) is the special unit of dose equivalent RAD (Radiation Absorbed Dose) is a special unit of absorbed dose.
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Detection and Measurement
Unlike many hazardous substances that possess certain properties which can alert field personnel to over exposures, radiation has no such warning properties. Therefore, it is imperative that properly maintained, calibrated, and operational radiation survey meters and dosimeters be utilized whenever radiation is a concern.
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Biological Effects
Ionizing radiation causes primarily nonspecific damage to cells. Radiation passing through living cells will directly ionize or excite atoms and molecules in the cell structure. The total effect on cell processes is a function of the dose of radiation. The cell processes will be affected in varying degrees:

Some damage to the cell may be repaired If the extent of the damage to an organ is quite large, the organ may not be able to repair itself Cells may also begin to exhibit uncontrolled growth.
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Exposure Control
Continuous monitoring using survey instruments, pocket dosimeters and other survey equipment is needed to assess external radiation hazards. The goal of radiation protection is to establish external radiation protection factors to reduce exposure.
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External Radiation Protection Factors

Time: Reducing the amount of time in a radiation field reduces the amount of exposure. Distance: Increasing the distance between you and a radioactive material decreases the intensity of the hazard. Shielding: The greater the mass situated between you and a radioactive material, the less radiation that will penetrate. As Low As Reasonably Achievable (ALARA): Keeping radiation exposure as low as reasonably achievable can reduce unnecessary occupational exposure.
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Test Your Knowledge
When you are exposed to radiation, you will know because:
Your eyes will begin to water. You will not know. You will feel respiratory discomfort. You will smell fumes.
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Multiple Hazard Class Rule
Remember: Multiple hazards are the rule rather than the exception. Assume that a hazardous substance will present more than one hazard. Chemicals are typically classified (e.g., DOT) by their principal adverse property (e.g., flammability, corrosivity).
This does not mean that chemicals can not exhibit adverse properties other than those associated with their hazard class (e.g., flammable and poisonous). Multiple hazards can also result from the reaction of different chemicals with each other and/or with other materials.
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Practical Considerations for Hazardous Chemical Awareness

Know the chemicals and their properties. Always consult MSDSs or other reference sources. Be aware of incompatibilities. Plan your work procedure. Be aware of the types of reactions you can expect, especially when other chemicals are introduced to the process. Know how to respond to an unexpected reaction: Stop work in progress Attempt to determine the cause, if it is safe to do so Consult an industrial hygienist or chemist.
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Test Your Knowledge
Which of the following is not a consideration when using hazardous chemicals?
Always consult an MSDS. Be aware of incompatibilities. Keep a glass of water in your work area in the event that you get thirsty. Be aware of the types of reactions you can expect. Plan your work procedure.
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Hazard Control Practices
The following safe work practices should always be used in hazard control:

Handle materials carefully to prevent direct contact Limit exposure levels and time as much as possible Enforce good hygiene practices Take appropriate fire prevention and control measures Use appropriate personal protective equipment Utilize equipment and tools not affected by the chemical being handled Ensure that a chemical is not mixed with other chemicals or substances which may result in adverse reactions Use engineering controls Use good common sense.
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Test Your Knowledge
Chemical hazard control practices include the following:
Limit exposure time. Use good hygiene. Prevent contamination. All of the above.
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Summary
Measures you can take to minimize the risks associated with chemical hazard reactions include:
Recognize chemical hazards, which are dependent on physical properties, toxicity, use, and the environmental conditions present Familiarize yourself with the chemical and physical characteristics as well as the warning properties of chemical hazards you may encounter during the course of your work Be aware of the effect environmental factors may have on potential hazards Know hazard control and evaluation methods for the potential hazards Always consult MSDSs or other reference sources for more information about chemical substances Understand the multiple hazard rule Familiarize yourself with the various hazard classes.
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Chemical Hazards and Reactions

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Chemical Hazards and Reactions

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Chemical Hazards and Reactions

Chemical hazards and reactions

Chemical hazards and reactions:

2003 Seton Identification Products

At the end of this module, you will be able to:

2003 Seton Identification Products

2003 Seton Identification Products

2003 Seton Identification Products

2003 Seton Identification Products

2003 Seton Identification Products

2003 Seton Identification Products

2003 Seton Identification Products

2003 Seton Identification Products

2003 Seton Identification Products

2003 Seton Identification Products

2003 Seton Identification Products

Test Your Knowledge

Vapors Solids Liquids Gases

Physical and Chemical Characteristics

Autoignition Specific Gravity Vapor Pressure Melting Point Explosive Limits

Solubility Vapor Density Boiling Point Flashpoint

2003 Seton Identification Products

2003 Seton Identification Products

2003 Seton Identification Products

2003 Seton Identification Products

2003 Seton Identification Products

2003 Seton Identification Products

2003 Seton Identification Products

A particular substance may exhibit totally different properties depending on phase.

2003 Seton Identification Products

The ability of a solid, liquid, gas or vapor to dissolve in a solvent is solubility.

2003 Seton Identification Products

2003 Seton Identification Products

Material Ammonia Ethelyene AIR

Vapor Density 0.59 0.972 1.0

2003 Seton Identification Products

Material Ammonia Ethelyene AIR

Vapor Density 0.59 0.972 1.0

2003 Seton Identification Products

2003 Seton Identification Products

2003 Seton Identification Products

2003 Seton Identification Products

The highest ratio that is flammable is the UEL/UFL.

2003 Seton Identification Products

Test Your Knowledge

2003 Seton Identification Products

Odor threshold Color of product Other senses

2003 Seton Identification Products

2003 Seton Identification Products

Odor Threshold (ppm)

Odor Threshold (ppm)

2003 Seton Identification Products

2003 Seton Identification Products

Test Your Knowledge

Allergies A head cold Olfactory fatigue All of the above

2003 Seton Identification Products

Other Environmental Factors

Wind Humidity Precipitation Temperature

2003 Seton Identification Products

Test your knowledge:

2003 Seton Identification Products

Test your knowledge:

2003 Seton Identification Products