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Chapter 8
Radio Transmitters
8-1: Transmitter Fundamentals 8-2: Carrier Generators 8-3: Power Amplifiers 8-4: Impedance-Matching Networks 8-5: Typical Transmitter Circuits
communicated and converts it into an electronic signal compatible with the communication medium. This process involves carrier generation, modulation, and power amplification. The signal is fed by wire, coaxial cable, or waveguide to an antenna that launches it into free space. Typical transmitter circuits include oscillators, amplifiers, frequency multipliers, and impedance matching networks.
information signal to be transmitted and converts it into an RF signal capable of being transmitted over long distances.
frequency at a desired point in the spectrum. 2. It must provide some form of modulation that causes the information signal to modify the carrier signal. 3. It must provide sufficient power amplification to ensure that the signal level is high enough to carry over the desired distance. 4. It must provide circuits that match the impedance of the power amplifier to that of the antenna for maximum transfer of power.
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connected to an antenna. This form of transmitter can generate continuous wave (CW) transmissions. The oscillator generates a carrier and can be switched off and on by a telegraph key to produce the dots and dashes of the International Morse code. CW is rarely used today as the oscillator power is too low and the Morse code is nearly extinct.
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lower sideband. 5. SSB signal sent to mixer circuit. 6. Final carrier frequency fed to linear driver and power amplifiers.
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generation.
Once generated, the carrier can be modulated,
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precision and stability demanded by the FCC is a crystal oscillator. A crystal is a piece of quartz that can be made to vibrate and act like an LC tuned circuit. Overtone crystals and frequency multipliers are two devices that can be used to achieve crystal precision and stability at frequencies greater than 30 MHz.
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adjustments to the crystal oscillator frequency. Field-effect transistors (FETs) make good crystal oscillators. The Pierce oscillator is a common configuration that uses a FET. An overtone crystal is cut so that it optimizes its oscillation at an overtone of the basic crystal frequency. The term harmonic is often used as a synonym for overtone.
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frequency, but crystal precision and stability are required, multiple crystals can be used and the desired one switched on. Mechanical rotary switches and diode switches are often used in this kind of application. Diode switching is fast and reliable.
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Figure 8-9: Using diodes to switch crystals. 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies
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generators that provide the frequency stability of crystal oscillators but the convenience of incremental tuning over a broad frequency range. Frequency synthesizers provide an output that varies in fixed frequency increments over a wide range. In a transmitter, a frequency synthesizer provides basic carrier generation. Frequency synthesizers are used in receivers as local oscillators and perform the receiver tuning function.
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detector, a low-pass filter, and a VCO. The input to the phase detector is a reference oscillator. The reference oscillator is normally crystal-controlled to provide high-frequency stability. The frequency of the reference oscillator sets the increments in which the frequency may be changed.
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Figure 8-10: Basic PLL frequency synthesizer. 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies
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depending upon a binary value supplied to the unit by a counter, a register, or an embedded microcontroller.
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binary representation of a sine wave. These are the values that would be generated by an analog-to-digital (A/D) converter if an analog sine wave were digitized and stored in the memory. If these binary values are fed to a digital-to-analog (D/A) converter, the output of the D/A converter will be a stepped approximation of the sine wave. A low-pass filter (LPF) is used to remove the highfrequency content smoothing the sine wave output.
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Figure 8-15: Basic concept of a DDS frequency source 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies
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synthesizers: The frequency can be controlled in very fine increments. The frequency of a DDS synthesizer can be changed much faster than that of the PLL.
However, a DDS synthesizer is limited in its output
frequencies.
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transmitters are:
Linear Class C Switching
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identical, enlarged replica of the input. Their output is directly proportional to their input and they faithfully reproduce an input, but at a higher level. Most audio amplifiers are linear. Linear RF amplifiers are used to increase the power level of variable-amplitude RF signals such as low-level AM or SSB signals.
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continuously. The output is an amplified linear reproduction of the input. Class B amplifiers are biased at cutoff so that no collector current flows with zero input. Only one-half of the sine wave is amplified. Class AB linear amplifiers are biased near cutoff with some continuous current flow. They are used primarily in push-pull amplifiers and provide better linearity than Class B amplifiers, but with less efficiency.
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ring a tuned circuit to create a continuous sine-wave output. Class C amplifiers cannot be used to amplify varyingamplitude signals. This type amplifier makes a good frequency multiplier as harmonics are generated in the process.
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oscillator and the final power amplifier to isolate the oscillator from the power amplifier load, which can change the oscillator frequency.
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Figure 8-21: A linear (class A) RF buffer amplifier 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies
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is applied to two transistors through an input transformer. The transformer provides impedance-matching and base drive signals to the two transistors that are 180 out of phase. An output transformer couples the power to the antenna or load.
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Figure 8-23: A push-pull class B power amplifier 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies
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class C amplifier. These amplifiers are used for power amplification in the form of drivers, frequency multipliers, and final amplifiers. Class C amplifiers are biased so they conduct for less than 180 of the input. Current flows through a class C amplifier in short pulses, and a resonant tuned circuit is used for complete signal amplification.
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into an inductor. The exchange of energy between the inductor and the capacitor is called the flywheel effect and produces a damped sine wave at the resonant frequency.
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frequency multiplication if the tuned circuit in the collector resonates at some integer multiple of the input frequency.
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finds its way back to the input of the amplifier with the correct amplitude and phase, and the amplifier oscillates. When an amplifier circuit oscillates at a higher frequency unrelated to the tuned frequency, the oscillation is referred to as parasitic oscillation.
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amplitude and 180 out of phase with the signal, is fed back. The result is that the two signals cancel each other out.
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switch and is either conducting or nonconducting. A class D amplifier uses a pair of transistors to produce a square-wave current in a tuned circuit. In a class E amplifier, only a single transistor is used. This amplifier uses a low-pass filter and tuned impedance-matching circuit to achieve a high level of efficiency.
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results in a steeper square waveform. This waveform produces faster transistor switching and better efficiency. Class S amplifiers are found primarily in audio applications but have also been used in low- and medium-frequency RF amplifiers.
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than the previously mentioned amplifiers can accommodate. Two common methods of broad-bandwidth amplification are: Feedforward amplification Adaptive predistortion amplification
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power amplifier is isolated and subtracted from the amplified signal, producing a nearly distortion-free output signal. The system is inefficient because two power amplifiers are required. The tradeoff is wide bandwidth and very low distortion.
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Figure 8-34: Feedforward linear power amplifier. 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies
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predistort the signal in a way that when amplified, the amplifier distortion will offset the predistortion characteristics. The result is a a distortion-free output signal. The method is complex, but is more efficient than the feedforward method because only one power amplifier is needed.
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Figure 8-35: Concept of adaptive predistortion amplification. 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies
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some combination.
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selectivity.
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frequencies are filtered out. The L-matching network is designed so that the load impedance is matched to the source impedance.
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Figure 8-37a: L-type impedance-matching network in which ZL < Zi. 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies
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matching networks using three reactive elements can be used. A network is designed by using reactive elements in a configuration that resembles the Greek letter A T network is designed by using reactive elements in a configuration that resembles the letter T.
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they are less efficient than iron-core transformers. The most widely used type of core for RF transformers is the toroid. A toroid is a circular, doughnut-shaped core, usually made of a special type of powdered iron. Single-winding tapped coils called autotransformers are also used for impedance matching between RF stages.
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by the primary to be completely contained within the core itself. This has two important advantages: A toroid does not radiate RF energy. Most of the magnetic field produced by the primary cuts the turns of the secondary winding.
Thus, the basic turns ratio, input-output voltage, and
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unique type of transformer widely used in power amplifiers for coupling between stages and impedance matching. It is usually constructed by winding two parallel wires (or a twisted pair) on a toroid.
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are a combination of ICs and discrete component circuits. Two examples are:
Low-Power FM Transmitter Short-Range Wireless Transmitter
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an RF oscillator, which is usually crystal-controlled with an external crystal; and a buffer amplifier. Frequency modulation is produced by a variable reactance circuit connected to the oscillator. It also contains two free transistors that can be connected with external components as buffer amplifiers or as multipliers and low-level power amplifiers. This chip is useful up to about 60 to 70 MHz, and is widely used in cordless telephones.
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Figure 8-51: Freescale MC 2833 IC FM VHF transmitter chip. 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies
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Figure 8-50: Schematic of sections of the E-Comm transceiver. 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies
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require a transmitter to send data or control signals to a nearby receiver. Examples include:
Remote keyless entry (RKE) devices used to open car doors
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and operate in the FCCs industrial-scientific-medical (ISM) bands. A typical transmitter circuit might be composed of: PLL used as a frequency multiplier Output power amplifier
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Figure 8-52: The Freescale MC 33493D UHF ISM transmitter IC. 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies