A talk on

SILICON TECHNOLOGIES: GIANT STRIDES

at the

Solar 2010
Conference
(21-22 Sep., 2010, New Delhi) Organised by Renewable Energy India Forum (REIF)

by

OP Bhutani, Director (E, R&D), BHEL

(opb@bhel.in)

&

Dr RK Bhogra, Consultant (Solar Energy), BHEL

(rkbhogra@bhel.in; rkbhogra50@gmail.com)

Solar Photovoltaics

Brief Business Scenario

PV industry experiencing an average annual growth rate of more than

45% during the last 5 years

Global Production- 2001:0.4 GW, 2006:2.5 GW, 2009:12.3GW

Accelerated Growth Projected in future

Projected production plan- 2010:21 GW (Earlier Proj was 15 GW)

Current share of Crystalline silicon solar cells: >80%

Mono crystalline ~ 34%

Multi crystalline ~ 47%

Global shortage of silicon feedstock being addressed by capacity additions

Thin film PV technologies (CdTe, CIGS, a-Si) experiencing rapid development in view of possible technology break-

through leading to order-of-magnitude cost reduction, having current

average annual growth of thin film solar cells: over 80%

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Solar Cells Global Shipments

25000

20000

Actual Projection

+ 56%

15000

MW

10000

4279

7900

12300

21000
Source: Photon Intl. Mar10
2010

Actual & Projected 1998-2010

1998

155

1999

202

2000

287

2001

401

2002

560

2003

750

2004

1256

5000

2005

1815

2006

2536

2007

2008

Year
Year : 1998 Growth %: -1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010E 30 42 40 39 34 68 45 40 69 85 56 70E

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2009

PHOTOVOLTAICS MARKET GROWTH & FORECAST

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Source:Photon International

Source: Photon International March10

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PV TECHNOLOGY SHARE FORECAST

Forecast of PV Technology - Share

100 80

85 76 Crystalline Thin Film New Technology

% of Share

60 40 20 0 2010 2020 Year 2030 13 2 18 6 31 34 35

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Source:EPIA Solar Technology Roadmap 2008

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Source: Photon International Mar10

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Source: Photon International Feb10

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To maintain the current high growth rate of PV shipments & to address scarcity of silicon feedstock, following three different pathways are being pursued simultaneously: 1.Substantial increase in production of solar grade silicon 2.Reduction of material consumption through: -development of higher efficiency solar cells -technology development for use of thinner wafers 3.Accelerated development and introduction of thin film solar cell technologies into the market.
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Global Strategy to tap PV business

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Photovoltaics ?
Photovoltaics (PV) is the science of direct conversion of light to D.C. electricity, based on the fundamental principle of photovoltaic effect. This phenomenon is exhibited in semiconductor materials. PV benefits from a number of attractive features: Abundance of free fuel in the form of sunlight No moving parts low maintenance Totally noiseless, pollution free, benign source of energy

However, it also suffers from a few limitations: Low energy density Requires storage in batteries

Produces D.C. electricity that needs to be converted to A.C. for many applications 04/26/12 BHEL ASSCP Solar Photovoltaics
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Solar spectral distribution

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Various materials
(wrt electrical conductivity)

Conductors Aluminium Al (13) (2,8,3)

Copper Cu (29) (2,8,18,1) Silver Ag (47) (2,8,18,18,1)

Gold Au (79) (2,8,18,32,18,1)

Insulators (Normally compounds like SF6,SiO2 and other ceramics, etc.)

Sulphur S (16) (2,8,6)

Selenium Se (34) (2,8,18,6)

Semiconductors Silicon Si (14) (2,8,4)

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Germanium Ge (32) (2,8,18,4)

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Crystalline structure

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Micro Crystalline structure

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Amorphous structure

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What is band gap in a semiconductor?

P oo ht n

Fe re E cr n l to e

C n u to o d ci n Bn ad

~. e 11 V

Bn ad Gp a

Vl n eBn aa c a d

e F :Bn Gp E eg l v l i acy t l i g a d a - n r y e es n r sa

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Energy Band Gaps in solar cell materials

Theoretical efficiency limits of single junction solar cells made out of various semiconductors

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Physics of solar cells

Solar cells, the heart of a PV system, are meant to absorb sunlight and convert it directly to electricity. These are made from a wide range of semiconductor materials.
For best solar energy conversion the optimum band gap is ~ 1.4 - 1.5 eV. Some of the best solar cell materials are: Silicon (1.12 eV), InP (1.40 eV), GaAs (1.42 eV), CdTe (~1.44 eV) and CuInSe2 (~1.0 eV). Energy of the incident photons produce electron-hole pairs that are separated by the electric field and give rise to unidirectional electric current.

These are collected by the external contacts at the two faces of the semiconductor and produce usable DC power.
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Types of silicon used for making solar cells

Type of Silicon Single-crystal silicon Multicrystalline silicon Micro crystalline silicon Nano crystalline silicon
Abbreviation

Crystal Size Range >10cm

Method for Production Crystal growth by Czochralski (CZ), Float zone (FZ) Cast : Sheet & ribbon Plasma Enhanced Chemical-vapor deposition (PECVD) PECVD

c-Si

mc-Si

1mm-10cm

c-Si

0.1 m 1 m

nc-Si

<<1 m

Amorphous silicon
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a-Si

Crystallites absent
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PECVD
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Physics of solar cells

Silicon Doping (n-type & p-type) n-type semiconductors

(doping with Phosphorous)

p-type semiconductors
(doping with Boron)

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Physics of solar cells Basic principle of operation of a solar cell

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Physics of solar cells Ways to maximize solar cell efficiency

Minimize reflection of light and recombination of photo carriers Maximize absorption of light and conduction of photo carriers

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Types of solar cells

Types of solar cells based on choice of semiconductor material and device structure
Crystalline silicon solar cells: mono crystalline silicon (cSi) and multicrystalline silicon (mc-Si) Surface barrier solar cells (a-Si on c-Si) Passivated Interface (PI) at hetero junction Thin film solar cells:
amorphous silicon (a-Si) polycrystalline copper indium diselenide (CIS) or copper-indium-gallium - selenide / sulphide (CIGS) cadmium telluride (CdTe) thin-film crystalline silicon

Gallium arsenide (GaAs) and multi junction cells (GaInP / GaAs / Ge ) with super-high efficiency Nano crystalline Dye-sensitized TiO2 based and other nanostructured solar cells
24

Organic (Polymer) solar cells 04/26/12 BHEL ASSCP Solar Photovoltaics

Multi junction solar cells

Multi junction solar cell structures based on crystalline thin films of compound semiconductors

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Efficiency comparision of various types solar cells

Comparison of cell and module efficiencies for various PV technologies

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Silicon the most preferred PV material

Of all semiconductors materials, silicon has been the most popular choice for solar cells because of its

- Availability in abundance
- Strong technological backup from electronics

industry
- Non-toxic and stable nature - Less complex process for solar cell production
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Sand to silicon wafers

(Poly Si Nuggets)

Silane (used for a-Si)

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Poly silicon PV Technology Manufacturing and supply chain

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Mono/Multi crystalline silicon wafers/cells

Mono crystalline Si Ingot ~ 2x2x1 Si block

Mono crystalline Si wafer

Mono crystalline Si solar cell

Multi crystalline (mc-Si) ingot

Multi crystalline Si wafer

Multi crystalline Si solar cell

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PV Technology Process flow chart

Wafer cleaning Silicon wafer Texturisation Diffusion

Firing of contacts

Printing of contacts

AR coating

Edge isolation

Cell testing Solar Cell

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Moduling and framing

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National Solar Mission R&D targets

Ph 1 (2010-13) Ph 2 (2013-17) Ph 3 (2017-22)

Crystalline Si (laboratory) (small area) Mono Si (Production) Multi Si (Production) a-Si single/multi jn.(laboratory) a-Si single/multi jn.(Production) Stabilized a-Si/mc or nc Si tandem (laboratory) a-Si/mc or nc Si tandem (production) CIGS (laboratory) CIGS (production) CdTe (laboratory) CdTe (production) New materials (Dyes/Organic cells) lab New materials (Dyes/Organic cells) prodn. Concentrator cells GaAs (laboratory) GaAs (production) Silicon (laboratory) Silicon (production) Module life (years) Inverter Efficiency Life Storage Battery Efficiency (Wh) Cycle life Module cost (Rs./W)

22% 17-19 % 16-18 % 13.5% 7- 8 % 12% 9% 15% 8-10% 15% 8-10% 5-10%

23.50% 18-22 % 17-19 % 14.5% 8-9.5 % 16% 12-14% 20% 12-15% 20% 12-15% 15% 8-10% 40% 35% 28% 25% >30 98% >15 yrs. 88% 1800-2200 60

25% 20-24 % 18-21 % 14.5% 9-11 % 20% 15-18% 25% 17-20% 25% 17-20% 25% 12-17% 45% 40% 30% 28% >35 98% >20 yrs. 90% 2200-2800 30

27% 25% >25 97% >10 yrs. 87% 1500-1800 100

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Indian PV scenario general facts

Total installed power generation capacity: 162 GW

RE power generation capacity:16.8 GW ^ (~ 10 % of total) Cumulative PV installation: ~ 800 MW * (till 2009)

Total grid connected PV installation (power plants): ~ 6 MW *

Total off-grid PV installation (power plants & street lights):100 MW ** 11th five-year plan target (PV+CSP): 1000 MW by 2011-12
as per NSM

guidelines announced on July 25, 2010; cumulative target of ~10,000 MW by 2022)

No. of cell manufacturers: 14 (Annual capacity ~ 500 MW)

&

No. of module manufacturers: 20 (Annual capacity ~ 1000 MW) * No. of system integrators: ~ 50 *
Source: ^ Power Min. Website ; * ISA report on solar PV industry in India, May 2010 & ** EAI Solar PV Report, July 2010;
&

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CMG / BHEL, Aug 2010

Indian PV scenario cell & module production

Production for the year 2009-10:

Cell: ~ 240 MW & Module: ~ 300 MW & Expected production capacity by the end of 2010: Cell ~ 750 MW * Module ~ 1250 MW *
&

Verbal communication with MNRE, 19 Aug 2010 ISA report on solar PV industry in India, May 2010

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Indian PV scenario cost projections for solar PV

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New Technologies under development

(Silicon based) Extensive R&D being pursued globally to enhance efficiencies (Target of 22-26%) of Crystalline Silicon solar cells:
- Hetero Junction Solar Cells (Sanyo)

- Rear Contact Solar cells (Sun Power)

- Laser Fired Contact Solar Cells - Plasma based Reactive Ion Etching for Texturisation of Multi-Crystalline Silicon (m-cSi) Solar Cells - Selective Emitter Technology - Silicon Ribbon Solar Cells

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High efficiency Passivated Interface Hetero Junction solar cells

High Efficiency c-Si Solar Cell

Passivated Interface Hetero-junction/ HIT Solar Cell

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Passivated Interface Hetero-junction Solar Cell

Front

Rear

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Major issues in Solar Photovoltaics

Availability & Price Stability of solar grade poly silicon / wafers High initial capital cost of Solar PV power plants Fluctuating global political commitment & government support Lack of Qualified/ trained manpower Lack of service after sales infrastructure Lack of serious concern towards environment
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