Dispersion of Air

Pollutants
Depends on meteorological
conditions:
wind speed and atmospheric
stability class (adiabatic lapse rate,
see diagrams at left)
2
Effect of stack parameters
PLUME
RISE
X
PLUME
CENTERLINE
o
z
Z
RELEASE
HEIGHT
h
e
Plume rise:
fairly complex, depends on velocity and temperature of flue gas, as well
as on ambient atmospheric conditions
3
Turbulence
Circular eddies of air movements over short timescales than
those that determine wind speed (unstable)
Mechanical Turbulence:
Caused by air moving over and around structures/vegetation
Increases with wind speed
Affected by surface roughness
Thermal Turbulence:
Caused by heating/cooling of the earths surface
Flows are typically vertical
Convection cells of upwards of 1000 - 1500 meters
What is the effect of turbulence on pollution?
Is turbulence desired?
4/28/2012 4
Atmospheric Stability
Concept that describes (non-)movement of air near
the surface
Characterized by vertical temperature gradients
(Lapse Rates)
Dry adiabatic lapse rate (I) = 0.976
o
C/100 m ~ 1
o
C/100 m
International standard lapse rate = 0.0066
o
C/m
Does dry or moist air have a larger temperature change for
the same change in elevation? Why?

Does lapse rate have anything to do with air quality?
4/28/2012 5
First Law of Thermodynamics

Barometric Equation
g
dZ
dP
=
dP dT C dP dh dq
p

u
1
= =
= 0 for adiabatic expansion
p
p
C
g
dZ
dT
gdZ dP dT C
=
=

=
1
How much is dT/dZ if C
p
= 1.003410
3
m
2
/s
2
-K? What if C
p
=
1.85610
3
m
2
/s
2
-K? (for dry air and moist air)
Lapse Rate
4/28/2012 6
Stability Conditions
Adiabatic lapse rate
Environmental lapse rate
4/28/2012 7
Superadiabatic Lapse Rates (Unstable)
Temperature decreases are greater than -10
o
C/km
Occur on sunny days
Characterized by intense vertical mixing
Excellent dispersion conditions
4/28/2012 8
Neutral Lapse Rates
Temperature decreases are similar to the adiabatic lapse rate
Results from:
Cloudy conditions
Elevated wind speeds
Day/night transitions
Describes good dispersion conditions
Isothermal Lapse Rates (Weakly Stable)
Characterized by no temperature change with height
Atmosphere is somewhat stable
Dispersion conditions are moderate
4/28/2012 9
Inverted Lapse Rates (Strongly Stable)
Characterized by increasing temperature with height
Does it occur during the day or at night?
Is it associated with high or low pressure systems?
Does it improve or deteriorate air quality?
www.ew.govt.nz/enviroinfo/air/weather.htm
www.co.mendocino.ca.us/aqmd/Inversions.htm
Inversion
4/28/2012 10
Inverted Lapse Rates (Strongly Stable)
Characterized by increasing temperature with height
Does it occur during the day or at night?
Is it associated with high or low pressure systems?
Does it improve or deteriorate air quality?
www.ew.govt.nz/enviroinfo/air/weather.htm
www.co.mendocino.ca.us/aqmd/Inversions.htm
Inversion
4/28/2012 11
Inversion
Definition: temperature increases with altitude
4/28/2012 12
Inversion
http://www.co.mendocino.ca.us/aqmd/pages/Inversion-Art-(web).jpg
4/28/2012 13
Inversion
Two major types of inversion:
Subsidence Inversion: descent of a layer of air within a high
pressure air mass
Radiational Inversion: radiation at night from the earths
surface into the local atmosphere
4/28/2012 14
Radiational Inversions
Result from radiational cooling of the ground
Occur on cloudless nights nocturnal
Typically surface based
Are intensified in river valleys
Cause pollutants to be trapped

What happens to inversion when sun rises?
www.co.mendocino.ca.us/aqmd/Inv
ersions.htm
Fig 3.3
4/28/2012 15
Radiational Inversions
Elevated inversions are formed over urban areas
Due to heat island effect
Due to dust dome
Fig 3.4
4/28/2012 16
Radiational Inversions
Breakup after sunrise
Breakup results in elevated ground level
concentrations
Breakup described as a fumigation
de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smog
4/28/2012 17
Radiational Inversions
Elevated inversions are formed over urban areas
Due to heat island effect
Due to dust dome
Fig 3.4
4/28/2012 18
Subsidence Inversion
Associated with high-pressure systems
Inversion layer is formed aloft
Covers hundreds of thousands of square kms
Persists for days
Fig 3.5
apollo.lsc.vsc.edu/.../smog_var_geo.html
4/28/2012 19
Subsidence Inversion
Migrating high-pressure systems: contribute to the hazy
summer conditions in Midwest, SE and NE
Semi-permanent marine high-pressure systems
www.oceansatlas.org/.../datard.htm
Results in a large number
of sunny calm days
Inversion layer closest to
the ground on continental
side
Responsible for air
stagnation over Southern
California
Where else on earth
would have similar
phenomenon?
4/28/2012 20
Inversions
Frontal - warm air overrides cooler air
Advective - warm air flows over a cold surface or
cold air
www.atmos.ucla.edu/.../inversions/Note03.html
Qualitative Descriptions
Plume rise Ah
H=h
s
+ Ah
Driving forces
Buoyancy
Momentum
Different phases
Initial phase
Thermal phase
Breakup phase
Diffusion phase
Qualitative Descriptions
Influencing factors
When there is no downwash
Exit velocity
Stack diameter
Stack gas temperature
Ambient temperature
Wind speed
Atmospheric stability
Wind shear
Downwash

Holland Plume Rise Formula
Simple
More suitable for power plant
For neutral conditions


The wind speed is adjusted to the stack height.
For non-neutral conditions

(

|
|
.
|

\
|
+ = A

s
s
a s s s
d
T
T T
P
u
v d
h
3
10 68 . 2 5 . 1
h CF h
St
CF
CF
A = A
+
|
.
|

\
|
=
) (
7 . 0
10
Briggs Plume Rise Formulas
More complicated
Buoyancy flux parameter


Momentum flux parameter

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
a
a s s
s b
T
T T d
gv F
4
2
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
s
a s s
m
T
T d v
F
4
2 2
Briggs Plume Rise Formulas
Determination of buoyancy dominated or
momentum dominated plumes
Calculate (AT)
c
For unstable or neutral (A-D)
For F
b
<55

For F
b
>55

For stable (E,F)

If AT (=T
s
-T
a
) > (AT)
c
, its buoyancy dominated
If AT (=T
s
-T
a
) < (AT)
c
, its momentum dominated
( )
3
2
3
1
0297 . 0
s
s s
c
d
V T
T = A
( )
3
1
3
2
00575 . 0
s
s s
c
d
V T
T = A
2
1
01958 . 0 ) ( s V T T
s s c
= A

Briggs Plume Rise Formulas
For buoyancy dominated plume under
unstable or neutral conditions (A-D)
x* = distance at which atmospheric turbulence
begins to dominate entrainment
For F
b
>55 m
4
/sec
3
, x*=34 F
b
2/5
For F
b
<55 m
4
/sec
3
, x*=14 F
b
5/8
x
f
=distance to the final rise, m
x
f
=3.5x*
Final plume rise:

u
x F
h
b
3
2
*
3
1
) 5 . 3 ( 6 . 1
= A
Briggs Plume Rise Formulas
For buoyancy dominated plume under stable
conditions (E and F)
Stability parameter, s


Default values for


0.02 K/m for E stability
0.035 K/m for F stability

|
.
|

\
|
A
AO
=
T T
g
s
a
|
.
|

\
|
A
AO
z
Briggs Plume Rise Formulas
Final plume rise


Distance to final rise

3
1
6 . 2 |
.
|

\
|
= A
s u
F
h
b
2
1
0715 . 2
s
u
x
f
=
Briggs Plume Rise Formulas
For momentum dominated plume under unstable or
neutral conditions (A-D)


For momentum dominated plume under stable
conditions (E,F)


Calculate both and use the lower one.
u
v d
h
s s
3
= A
3
1
5 . 1
|
|
.
|

\
|
= A
s u
F
h
m
Briggs Plume Rise Formulas
Final plume rise


Distance to final rise

3
1
6 . 2 |
.
|

\
|
= A
s u
F
h
b
2
1
0715 . 2
s
u
x
f
=
Briggs Plume Rise Formulas
For momentum dominated plume under unstable or
neutral conditions (A-D)


For momentum dominated plume under stable
conditions (E,F)


Calculate both and use the lower one.
u
v d
h
s s
3
= A
3
1
5 . 1
|
|
.
|

\
|
= A
s u
F
h
m
Briggs Plume Rise Formulas
Gradual rise
Distance < distance to final rise (i.e., x<x
f
) and
Buoyancy dominated plume


u
x F
h
b
3
2
3
1
) ( 6 . 1
= A
Briggs Plume Rise Formulas
Distance < distance to final rise (i.e., x<x
f
) and
momentum dominated plume
Jet entrainment coefficient


Unstable conditions (A-D)

3
1
2
2
3
|
|
.
|

\
|
= A
u
x F
h
j
m
|
s
j
v
u
+ =
3
1
|
Briggs Plume Rise Formulas
X=downwind distance with max value of:



X
max
=49F
b
5/8
for 0<F
b
<55 m
4
/sec
3
x
max
=119F
b
2/5
for F
b
> 55 m
4
/sec
3

Stable conditions (E,F)



with
0
) 3 ( 4
2
max
=
+
=
b
s
s s
F For
u v
u v d
x
3
1
2
/ sin(
3
(
(

= A
s u
u s x
F h
j
m
|
s
u
x
t
5 . 0
max
=
Briggs Plume Rise Summary
Unstable and
neutral
Stable
Buoyancy
Momentum
u
x F
h
b
3
2
*
3
1
) 5 . 3 ( 6 . 1
= A
3
1
6 . 2 |
.
|

\
|
= A
s u
F
h
b
u
v d
h
s s
3
= A
3
1
5 . 1
|
|
.
|

\
|
= A
s u
F
h
m
Buoyancy Induced Dispersion
Air entrainment due to boiling-like action enlarges
the plume
Small impact on ground level concentration in most
cases
The impact can be reflected in o
Initial plume size


Effective dispersion coefficients

5 . 3
0 0
h
z y
A
= = o o
5 . 0 2
0
2
5 . 0 2
0
2
) (
) (
z z ze
y y ye
o o o
o o o
+ =
+ =
Calculate the final plume rise from a power
plant for the following conditions:
Atmospheric Stability D
Vs =19 m/s
ds =3 m
U
10 m
=4 m/s
Ts =400
o
K
Ta =283
o
K
Stack Height= 67 m
Deacon power law for calculating wind speed at stack
height
u = u
1
* (z/z
1
)
p

Where,
u = desired but unknown wind speed, (u
s
)
u
1
= wind speed at known height, (u
10
)
z = height where wind speed is unknown, h
s

z
1
= height where wind speed is known, 10m
p = exponent from table 3-3 in the text = 0.15
Therefore, u = u
1
* (z/z
1
)
p
= 4 * (67/10)
0.15
= 5.3 m/sec

2) Check for downwash:
V
s
/ u >= 1.5 (downwash conditions need not
be considered) = 19.0/5.3 = 3.571
>1.5 (therefore downwash need not be
considered)
Where,
V
s
= stack velocity in m/sec
u = wind speed at plume elevation

3) Calculate buoyancy flux parameter
F
b
= g * v
s
* d
2
* T / (4 * T
s
)
= 9.81 * 19* 3
2
* (400 - 283) / (4 *400) = 123 m
4
/s
3
(F
b

> 55m
4
/s
3
)
4) Calculate temperature difference
T = T
s
- T
a
= 400 - 283 = 117
0
K
5) Calculate cross over temperature difference (T)
c

for F
b
> 55m
4
/s
3

(T)
c
= 0.00575 * T
s
* v
s
2/3
/ d
s

1/3
= 0.00575 * 400 *
19
2/3
/ 3
1/3
= 11.4
0
K

7) Calculate final plume rise h
for F
b
> 55m
4
/s
3
h = 38.71 * (F
b
3/5
/ u ) =
38.71 * (123
3/5
/ 5.3) = 130m
8) Calculate final effective plume height H
H = 130 + 67 = 197m
This is less than the typical 300m night time
inversion height; so plume rise may be
reasonably accurate