THE OSI MODEL

Application Presentation Session Transport Network Data-Link Physical

Where Weve Been

Chapter 1Review
By: Allan Johnson

Table of Contents
Go There! Go There! Go There! Go There! Go There! Go There!

Enterprise Review the OSI Model Encapsulation LAN Devices & Technologies Transport Layer IP Addressing

A New Word!Enterprise
A corporation, agency, school, or other organization that works to tie together its data, communication, computing, and file servers.

Your Job as a Network Guru

Help Enterprises meet their needs by:
Interconnecting their LANs so that geographically remote services can be accessed Ensuring users get high bandwidth access over their LANs (i.e. Replacing hubs with switches; 10Mbps NICs with 10/100 Mbps NICs or Gigabit per second NICs) Implementing new technologies as they emerge like e-commerce, video conferencing, voice over IP, and distance learning.

THE OSI MODEL

Application Presentation Session Transport Network Data-Link Physical

Review The Model

Open Systems Interconnected Reference Model
Table of Contents

Why A Layered Model?

Application Presentation Session Transport Network Data-Link Physical

Reduces complexity Standardizes interfaces Facilitates modular engineering Ensures interoperable technology Accelerates evolution Simplifies teaching & learning

Host Layers vs. Media Layers

Application Presentation Session Transport Network Data-Link Physical

Host Layers
Provides accurate data delivery between computers

Host Layers vs. Media Layers

Application Presentation Session Transport Network Data-Link Physical

Media Layers
Controls physical delivery of the message over the network

Application Layer
Application Presentation Session Transport Network Data-Link Physical

Provides network services (processes) to applications. For example, a computer on a LAN can save files to a server using a network redirector supplied by NOSs like Novell. Network redirectors allow applications like Word and Excel to see the network.

Presentation Layer
Application Presentation Session Transport Network Data-Link Physical

Provides data representation and code formatting. Code formatting includes compression and encryption Basically, the presentation layer is responsible for representing data so that the source and destination can communicate at the application layer.

Session Layer
Application Presentation Session Transport Network Data-Link Physical Provides inter-host communication by establishing, maintaining, and terminating sessions. Session uses dialog control and dialog separation to manage the session Some Session protocols:
NFS (Network File System) SQL (Structured Query Language) RCP (Remote Call Procedure) ASP (AppleTalk Session Protocol) SCP (Session Control Protocol) X-window

Transport Layer
Application Presentation Session Transport Network Data-Link Physical Provides reliability, flow control, and error correction through the use of TCP. TCP segments the data, adding a header with control information for sequencing and acknowledging packets received. The segment header also includes source and destination ports for upper-layer applications TCP is connection-oriented and uses windowing. UDP is connectionless. UDP does not acknowledge the receipt of packets.

Network Layer
Application Presentation Session Transport Network Data-Link Physical

Responsible for logically addressing the packet and path determination. Addressing is done through routed protocols such as IP, IPX, AppleTalk, and DECnet. Path Selection is done by using routing protocols such as RIP, IGRP, EIGRP, OSPF, and BGP. Routers operate at the Network Layer

Data-Link Layer
Application Presentation Session Transport Network Data-Link Physical

Provides access to the media Handles error notification, network topology issues, and physically addressing the frame. Media Access Control through either...
Deterministictoken passing Non-deterministicbroadcast topology (collision domains)

Important concept: CSMA/CD

Physical Layer
Application Presentation Session Transport Network Data-Link Physical

Provides electrical, mechanical, procedural and functional means for activating and maintaining links between systems. Includes the medium through which bits flow. Media can be...
CAT 5 cable Coaxial cable Fiber Optics cable The atmosphere

THE OSI MODEL

Application Presentation Session Transport Network Data-Link Physical Table of Contents

Encapsulation
Peer-to-Peer Communications

Peer-to-Peer Communications
Peers communicate using the PDU of their layer. For example, the network layers of the source and destination are peers and use packets to communicate with each other.
Application Presentation Session Transport Network Data-Link Physical Data Data Data Segments Packets Frames Bits Application Presentation Session Transport Network Data-Link Physical

Encapsulation Example
Application Presentation Session Transport Network Data-Link Physical

You type an email message. SMTP takes the data and passes it to the Presentation Layer. Presentation codes the data as ASCII. Session establishes a connection with the destination for the purpose of transporting the data.

Encapsulation Example
Application Presentation Session Transport Network Data-Link Physical

Transport segments the data using TCP and hands it to the Network Layer for addressing Network addresses the packet using IP. Data-Link then encaps. the packet in a frame and addresses it for local delivery (MACs) The Physical layer sends the bits down the wire.

THE OSI MODEL

Application Presentation Session Transport Network Data-Link Physical Table of Contents

LAN Devices & Technologies

The Data-Link & Physical Layers

Devices
What layer device?

What does it do?

Connects LAN segments; Filters traffic based on MAC addresses; and Separates collision domains based upon MAC addresses.

Devices
What does it do?
What layer device? Since it is a multi-port bridge, it can also
Connect LAN segments; Filter traffic based on MAC addresses; and Separate collision domains

However, switches also offer full-duplex, dedicated bandwidth to segments or desktops.

Devices
What layer device?

What does it do?

Concentrates LAN connections from multiple devices into one location Repeats the signal (a hub is a multi-port repeater)

Devices
What does it do? What layer device?
Interconnects networks and provides broadcast control Determines the path using a routing protocol or static route Re-encapsulates the packet in the appropriate frame format and switches it out the interface Uses logical addressing (i.e. IP addresses) to determine the path

Media Types

LAN Technologies

Three Most Common Used Today in Networking

Ethernet/802.3
Cable Specifications:
10Base2
Called Thinnet; uses coax Max. distance = 185 meters (almost 200)

10Base5
Called Thicknet; uses coax Max. distance = 500 meters

10BaseT
Uses Twisted-pair Max. distance = 100 meters

10 means 10 Mbps

Ethernet/802.3
Ethernet is broadcast topology.
What does that mean?
Every devices on the Ethernet segment sees every frame. Frames are addressed with source and destination ______ addresses. When a source does not know the destination or wants to communicate with every device, it encapsulates the frame with a broadcast MAC address: FFFF.FFFF.FFFF

What is the main network traffic problem caused by Ethernet broadcast topologies?

Ethernet/802.3
Ethernet topologies are also shared media. That means media access is controlled on a first come, first serve basis. This results in collisions between the data of two simultaneously transmitting devices. Collisions are resolved using what method?

Ethernet/802.3
CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection) Describe how CSMA/CD works:
A node needing to transmit listens for activity on the media. If there is none, it transmits. The node continue to listen. A collision is detected by a spike in voltage (a bit can only be a 0 or a 1--it cannot be a 2) The node generates a jam signal to tell all devices to stop transmitting for a random amount of time (back-off algorithm). When media is clear of any transmissions, the node can attempt to retransmit.

Address Resolution Protocol

In broadcast topologies, we need a way to resolve unknown destination MAC addresses. ARP is protocol where the sending device sends out a broadcast ARP request which says, Whats you MAC address? If the destination exists on the same LAN segment as the source, then the destination replies with its MAC address. However, if the destination and source are separated by a router, the router will not forward the broadcast (an important function of routers). Instead the router replies with its own MAC address.

THE OSI MODEL

Application Presentation Session Transport Network Data-Link Physical Table of Contents

Transport Layer
A Quick Review

Transport Layer Functions

Synchronization of the connection
Three-way handshake

Flow Control
Slow down, youre overloading my memory buffer!!

Reliability & Error Recovery

Windowing: How much data can I send before getting an acknowledgement? Retransmission of lost or unacknowledged segments

Transports Two Protocols

TCP
Transmission Control Protocol Connection-oriented Acknowledgment & Retransmission of segments Windowing Applications:
Email File Transfer E-Commerce

UDP
User Datagram Protocol Connectionless No Acknowledgements Applications:
Routing Protocols Streaming Audio Gaming Video Conferencing

THE OSI MODEL

Application Presentation Session Transport Network Data-Link Physical Table of Contents

IP Addressing
Subnetting Review

Logical Addressing
At the network layer, we use logical, hierarchical addressing. With Internet Protocol (IP), this address is a 32-bit addressing scheme divided into four octets. Do you remember the classes 1st octets value?
Class Class Class Class Class A: 1 - 127 B: 128 - 191 C: 192 - 223 D: 224 - 239 (multicasting) E: 240 - 255 (experimental)

Network vs. Host

Class A:
hosts 2 7 = 126 networks; 2 24 > 16 million

Class B :

2 14 = 16,384 networks; 2 16 > 65,534 hosts

N
Class C :
hosts

2 21 > 2 million networks; 2 8 = 254

Why Subnet?
Remember: we are usually dealing with a broadcast topology. Can you imagine what the network traffic overhead would be like on a network with 254 hosts trying to discover each others MAC addresses? Subnetting allows us to segment LANs into logical broadcast domains called subnets, thereby improving network performance.

Stealing /Borrowing Host Bits

In order to subnet, we must steal or borrow bits from the host portion on the IP address. First, we must to determine how many subnets we need and how many hosts per subnet. We do this through the power of 2
For example, I need 8 subnets from a Class C:
24 = 16 - 2 = 14 subnets Remember: we subtract 2 because these subnets are not used

How many host do we have?

Its a Class C, so 4 bits are left: 24 = 16 - 2 = 14 hosts Remember: we subtract 2 because one address is the subnet address and one is the broadcast address

Subnet Mask
We determine the subnet mask by adding up the decimal value of the bits we borrowed. In the previous Class C example, we borrowed 4 bits. Below is the host octet showing the bits we borrowed and their decimal values. 1 128 1 1 64 1 32 1 16 8 4 2

We add up the decimal value of these bits and get 240. Thats the last non-zero octet of our subnet mask. So our subnet mask is 255.255.255.240

Last Non-Zero Octet

Memorize this table. You should be able to:
Quickly calculate the last non-zero octet when given the number of bits borrowed. Determine the number of bits borrowed given the last non-zero octet. Determine the amount of bits left over for hosts and the number of host addresses available.
Bits Non-Zero Borrowed Octet Hosts 2 192 62 3 224 30 4 240 14 5 248 6 6 252 2

CIDR Notation
Classless Interdomain Routing is a method of representing an IP address and its subnet mask with a prefix. For example: 192.168.50.0/27 What do you think the 27 tells you?
27 is the number of 1 bits in the subnet mask. Therefore, 255.255.255.224 Also, you know 192 is a Class C, so we borrowed 3 bits!! Finally, you know the magic number is 256 - 224 = 32, so the first useable subnet address is 197.168.50.32!!

Lets see the power of CIDR notation.

202.151.37.0/26
Subnet mask?
255.255.255.192

Bits borrowed?
Class C so 2 bits borrowed

Magic Number?
256 - 192 = 64

First useable subnet address?

202.151.37.64

Third useable subnet address?

64 + 64 + 64 = 192, so 202.151.37.192

198.53.67.0/30
Subnet mask?
255.255.255.252

Bits borrowed?
Class C so 6 bits borrowed

Magic Number?
256 - 252 = 4

Third useable subnet address?

4 + 4 + 4 = 12, so 198.53.67.12

Second subnets broadcast address?

4 + 4 + 4 - 1 = 11, so 198.53.67.11

200.39.89.0/28
What kind of address is 200.39.89.32?
Class C, so 4 bits borrowed Last non-zero octet is 240 Magic number is 256 - 240 = 16 32 is a multiple of 16 so 200.39.89.32 is a subnet address--the second subnet address!!

Whats the broadcast address of 200.39.89.32?

32 + 16 -1 = 47, so 200.39.89.47

194.53.45.0/29
What kind of address is 194.53.45.26?
Class C, so 5 bits borrowed Last non-zero octet is 248 Magic number is 256 - 248 = 8 Subnets are .8, .16, .24, .32, ect. So 194.53.45.26 belongs to the third subnet address (194.53.45.24) and is a host address.

What broadcast address would this host use to communicate with other devices on the same subnet?
It belongs to .24 and the next is .32, so 1 less is .31 (194.53.45.31)

No Worksheet Needed!
After some practice, you should never need a subnetting worksheet again. The only information you need is the IP address and the CIDR notation. For example, the address 221.39.50/26 You can quickly determine that the first subnet address is 221.39.50.64. How?
Class C, 2 bits borrowed 256 - 192 = 64, so 221.39.50.64

For the rest of the addresses, just do multiples of 64 (.64, .128, .192).

The Key!!
MEMORIZE THIS TABLE!!! Or Know how to recreate/derive it!!!!
Bits Non-Zero Borrowed Octet Hosts 2 192 62 3 224 30 4 240 14 5 248 6 6 252 2

Practice On Your Own

Below are some practice problems. Take out a sheet of paper and calculate...
Bits borrowed Last non-zero octet Second subnet address and broadcast address

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 1. 2.

192.168.15.0/26 220.75.32.0/30 200.39.79.0/29 195.50.120.0/27 202.139.67.0/28 Challenge: 132.59.0.0/19 Challenge: 64.0.0.0/16

Answers

Answers
Dont Cheat Yourself!!
Work them out before you check your answers. Click the back button if youre not done. Otherwise, click anywhere else in the screen to see the answers.

Back
A d d ress 192.168.15.0/26 220.75.32.0/30 200.39.79.0/29 195.50.120.0/27 202.139.67.0/28 Challeng e: 132.59.0.0/19 64.0.0.0/16 B its Last NonClass B orrow ed Zero Octet C 2 192 C 6 252 C 5 248 C 3 224 C 4 240 B A 3 8 224 255 Sub net Jum p 64 4 8 32 16 32 1 2 nd Sub net's A d d ress 192.168.15.128 220.75.32.8 200.39.79.16 195.50.120.64 202.139.67.32 132.59.64.0 64.2.0.0 2 nd Sub net's B road cast 192.168.15.191 220.75.32.15 220.39.79.23 195.50.120.95 202.139.67.47 132.59.95.255 64.2.255.255