BY:LALITA C4 BATCH BELGAUM

acknowledgement
I WOULD LIKE TO THANK MRS. SANGEETA

NAIR FOR GIVING US SUCH A WONDERFUL PROJECT.

HISTORY OF AVIATION

The history of aviation has extended over more than two thousand years from the earliest attempts in kites and gliders to powered heavierthan-air, supersonic and hypersonic flight. The first form of man-made flying objects were kites.[1] The earliest known record of kite flying is from around 200 BC in China, when a general flew a kite over enemy territory to calculate the length of tunnel required to enter the region.[2] Yuan Huangtou, a Chinese prince, survived by tying himself to the kite.[3] Leonardo da Vinci's (15th c.) dream of flight found expression in several designs, but he did not attempt to demonstrate his ideas by actually constructing them.

CONTINUED

With the efforts to analyze the atmosphere in the 17th and 18th century, gases such as hydrogen were discovered which in turn led to the invention of hydrogen balloons.[1] Various theories in mechanics by physicists during the same period of time, notably fluid dynamics and Newton's laws of motion, led to the foundation of modern aerodynamics. Tethered balloons filled with hot air were used in the first half of the 19th century and saw considerable action in several mid-century wars, most notably the American Civil War, where balloons provided observation during the Battle of Petersburg. Experiments with gliders provided the groundwork for heavier-than-air craft, and by the early 20th century advances in engine technology and aerodynamics made controlled, powered flight possible for the first time.

Mythology Human ambition to fly is illustrated in mythological literature of several cultures; the wings made out of wax and feathers by Daedalus in Greek mythology, or the Pushpaka Vimana of king Ravana in Ramayan Flight automaton in Greece Around 400 BC, Archytas, the Greek philosopher, mathematician, astronomer, statesman and strategist, designed and built a bird-shaped, apparently steam powered[4] model named "The Pigeon" (Greek: "Peristera"), which is said to have flown some 200 meters.[5][6] According to Aulus Gellius, the mechanical bird was suspended on a string or pivot and was powered by a "concealed aura or spirit".[7][8]

Hot air balloons, glider and kites in China The Kongming lantern (proto hot air balloon) was known in China from ancient times. Its invention is usually attributed to the general Zuge Liang (180234 AD, honorific title Kongming), who is said to have used them to scare the enemy troops: An oil lamp was installed under a large paper bag, and the bag floated in the air due to the lamp heating the air. ... The enemy was frightened by the light in the air, thinking that some divine force was helping him.[9] However, the device based on a lamp in a paper shell is documented earlier, and according to Joseph Needham, hot-air balloons in China were known from the 3rd century BC. In the 5th century BCE Lu Ban invented a 'wooden bird' which may have been a large kite, or which may have been an early glider. In 1st century AD, when Wang Mang tried to recruit specialist as scout to Xiong Nu, a man binding himself with bird feather glided about 100 meters, but finally landed.[10]

CURRENT SCENARIO
NEW DELHI More than a dozen blurb pilots in India have been nude of their licenses as good as

a tip airline reserve central has been dangling after a supervision examination unclosed drawn out rascal as good as crime in a sepulchral aviation industry. Several of India's in isolation carriers, as good as a state-run airline, Air India, have dismissed active pilots as a outcome of a inquiry, which unclosed pilots equivocating drifting records, intrigue upon moody exams as good as profitable bribes to contrast officials.

 India's airline attention began expanding twenty years ago among extended mercantile

liberalizations, though it has grown phenomenally as a manage to buy has blossomed in ultimate years, attracting billions of dollars in investment as good as giving climb to a series of ultimate airlines to hoop tens of millions of ultimate passengers. Government slip of a boom, analysts as good as airline professionals here say, lags perilously behind.

THE FUTURE GROWTH OF AVIATION INDUSTRY IN INDIA

Apr. 25 As Indias government prepares to submit

its approach paper for its 12th five-year plan (a plan which covers years 2012 to 2017), the Planning Commissions focus on instilling inclusive growth is making headway. The plan is expected to be one that encourages the development of Indias agriculture, education, health and social welfare through government spending. It is also expected to create employment through developing Indias manufacturing sector and move the nation higher up the value chain. Prime Minister Manmohan Singh, however, warned that maintaining fiscal discipline is important as well.

COCKPIT
A compartment for the pilot, and sometimes

also the crew, in an aircraft or spacecraft. The most obvious features in a cockpit are the seats for the pilots and the instrumentation panel. However, you will also be able to find stowage areas (e.g. for documents, fire extinguishers, clothing), as well as the pedestal, side consoles, a third (or jump) seat and access to electric and electronic compartments

COCKPIT ENCLOSURE
This is a typical layout for an aircraft

cockpit. Yet, the design may change depending on manufacturers' preferences and type of aircraft. (Image: cockpit layout of the A310 MRTT Multi-Role Tanker Transport, Europe embedded from Air force Technology on 1 September 2009

SEATS
In modern planes, the seats in

the cockpit are designed ergonomically, for comfort during long flights. A third, or jump seat, may be present, which can be used by observers (e.g. doing LOSA) or invited people (e.g. other pilots). (Image: pilots' seats and jump seat on the Airbus A380 the embedded from Airliners.net on 1 September 2009)

FLIGHT DECK
The flight deck comprises the

main displays and controls for flying the aircraft, as well as their location in the cockpit environment. A typical airliner will have the main displays in the instrumentation panel, in front of the pilots, and the controls around him (central pedestal and side consoles) and above him (overhead panel). (Image: flight deck on the Boeing 737s embedded from Boeing on 2 September 2009)

OTHER COMPARTMENTS
E.g. accessories and

maintenance panel. (Image: maintenance panel on the Boeing 757-200 embedded from TCX Boeing 757-200/300 on 8 September 2009)

CONTROL COLUMN
A yoke is, perhaps, the prototypical

flight control, positioned right in front of each pilot. It controls pitch (nose up/down via pull/push inputs) and roll (left/right bank via left/right turn inputs), and may control trim, as well. However, pitch and bank can also be controlled via a stick, as in some Airbus's models. (Image: yoke of a Boeing 737 embedded from Wikimedia Commons on 2 September 2009)

RUDDER PEDALS
They are positioned on the floor in

front of the pilots, and act on the rudder, at the tail of the aircraft. They control jaw (right/left movement via push inputs on the right/left pedal) while flying, as well as steer the aircraft on the ground. (Image: cockpit of the Airbus A380, showing the rudder pedals (notice also the side sticks instead of frontal yokes) embedded from Photo bucket on 2 September 2009

INSTRUMENT PANEL
The main instrument panel

holds the most important flight displays regarding both flight performance and aircraft status. (Image: custom instrument panel in a Piper Aztec embedded from Diamondaire's weblog on 2 September 2009)

PEDESTAL
It normally contains the

throttle and other engine controls, input keyboards for the navigational system, etc. (Image: central pedestal on a Boeing 767 embedded from Flickr on 1 September 2009)

SLIDE CONSOLES
They are used for placing

the side stick, communication instruments, documentation, etc, depending on the type of airplane. (Image: side console on the Phenom 100 embedded from Jet Brief on 1 September 2009)

OVERHEAD PANEL
It contains miscellaneous controls

and features not directly involved in flying. E.g. air conditioning, anti-ice controls, cabin pressurization controls, oxygen controls, etc. (Image: overhead panel on the Boeing 757-200 embedded from TCX Boeing 757200/300 on 8 September 2009)

CARGO

All articles, goods, materials, merchandise, or wares carried onboard an aircraft, ship, train, or truck, and for which an air waybill, or bill of lading, or other receipt is issued by the carrier. It includes livestock, but usually does not include bunkers (fuel for powering the vessel or vehicle), accompanying baggage, vessel or vehicle's equipment and spare parts, mail, and stores. Personnel carried onboard are classified as crew or passengers.

EXTERIOR PART OF A AIRCRAFT

EXTERIOR PART

A part or a surface that is outside 1) Basic Components:

Basic components of an aircraft fuselage: The fuselage is that portion of the aircraft that usually contains the crew and payload, either passengers, cargo, or weapons. Most fuselages are long, cylindrical tubes or sometimes rectangular box shapes. All of the other major components of the aircraft are attached to the fuselage. Empennage is another term sometimes used to refer to the aft portion of the fuselage plus the horizontal and vertical tails. wing: The wing is the most important part of an aircraft since it produces the lift that allows a plane to fly. The wing is made up of two halves, left and right, when viewed from behind. These halves are connected to each other by means of the fuselage. A wing produces lift because of its special shape, a shape called an airfoil. If we were to cut through a wing and look at its cross-section, as illustrated below, we would see that a traditional airfoil has a rounded leading edge and a sharp trailing edge.

 engine: The other key component that makes an

airplane go is its engine, or engines. Aircraft use several different kinds of engines, but they can all be classified in two major categories. Early aircraft from the Wright Flyer until World War II used propellerdriven piston engines, and these are still common today on light general aviation planes. But most modern aircraft now use some form of a jet engine. Many aircraft house the engine(s) within the fuselage itself. Most larger planes, however, have their engines mounted in separate pods hanging below the wing or sometimes attached to the fuselage. These pods are called nacelles.

horizontal stabilizer: If an aircraft consists of only a wing or a wing and fuselage, it is inherently unstable. Stability is defined as the tendency of an aircraft to return to its initial state following a disturbance from that state. The horizontal stabilizer, also known as the horizontal tail, performs this function when an aircraft is disturbed in pitch. In other words, if some disturbance forces the nose up or down, the horizontal stabilizer produces a counteracting force to push the nose in the opposite direction and restore equilibrium. When in equilibrium, we say that an aircraft is in its trim condition. The horizontal tail is essentially a miniature wing since it is also made up of an airfoil cross-section. The tail produces a force similar to lift that balances out the lift of the wing to keep the plane in equilibrium. To do so, the tail usually needs to produce a force pointed downward, a quantity called down force.

 vertical stabilizer: The vertical stabilizer, or vertical

tail, functions in the same way as the horizontal tail, except that it provides stability for a disturbance in yaw. Yaw is the side-to-side motion of the nose, so if a disturbance causes the nose to deflect to one side, the vertical tail produces a counteracting force that pushes the nose in the opposite direction to restore equilibrium. The vertical tail is also made of an airfoil cross-section and produces forces just like a wing or horizontal tail. The difference is that a wing or horizontal tail produces lift or downforce, forces that are pointed up or down from the aircraft. Meanwhile the vertical tail produces a force pointed to one side of the aircraft. This force is called side-force.

 2) Basic Control Surfaces: In addition to the wing and tail surfaces,

aircraft need some additional components that give the pilot the ability to control the direction of the plane. We call these items control surfaces.

 elevator: The elevator is located on the

horizontal stabilizer. It can be deflected up or down to produce a change in the down force produced by the horizontal tail. The angle of deflection is considered positive when the trailing edge of the elevator is deflected upward. Such a deflection increases the downforce produced by the horizontal tail causing the nose to pitch upward.

rudder: The rudder is located on the vertical stabilizer. It can be deflected to either side to produce a change in the side-force produced by the vertical tail. The angle of deflection is usually considered positive when the trailing edge of the rudder is deflected towards the right wing. Such a deflection creates a side-force to the left which causes the nose to yaw to the right. aileron: Ailerons are located on the tips of each wing. They are deflected in opposite directions (one goes trailing edge up, the other trailing edge down) to produce a change in the lift produced by each wing. On the wing with the aileron deflected downward, the lift increases whereas the lift decreases on the other wing whose aileron is deflected upward. The wing with more lift rolls upward causing the aircraft to go into a bank. The angle of deflection is usually considered positive when the aileron on the left wing deflects downward and that on the right wing deflects upward. The greater lift generated on the left wing causes the aircraft to roll to the right.

 3) Additional Components: We've already seen the major parts of a

typical plane, but a few important items were left out for simplicity. Let's go back and discuss a few of these items.

 flap: Flaps are usually located along the trailing edge of

both the left and right wing, typically inboard of the ailerons and close to the fuselage. Flaps are similar to ailerons in that they affect the amount of lift created by the wings. However, flaps only deflect downward to increase the lift produced by both wings simultaneously. Flaps are most often used during takeoff and landing to increase the lift the wings generate at a given speed. This effect allows a plane to takeoff or land at a slower speed than would be possible without the flaps. In addition to flaps on the trailing edge of a wing, a second major category is flaps on the leading edge. These leading-edge flaps, more often called slats, are also used to increase lift. More information on slats and flaps is available here.

 nose & main gear: The landing gear is used

during takeoff, landing, and to taxi on the ground. Most planes today use what is called a tricycle landing gear arrangement. This system has two large main gear units located near the middle of the plane and a single smaller nose gear unit near the nose of the aircraft.

INTERIOR PART

 Plane Parts Company was founded by the owner of a 1971

Piper Cherokee PA28-180 aircraft who is both an engineer and a pilot. Of course, like most Piper Cherokees, the interior of his PA28-180 was fairly well worn out and it needed a complete refurbishing. What quickly became evident was the complete lack of replacement interior plastic parts. What few parts he did find were outrageously expensive and would take weeks to get. We are sure that you too have run into the same experience. One of the things we found hard to believe was the high price that Piper Aircraft was charging for the smallest items. 20 years ago, a fresh air vent cup from Piper was $45 and the retaining flange was $38! Today, we offer the same parts for around $10 each.

 "Any part of an airplane interior, including carpeting, headliners, seat cushioning,

upholstery, soundproofing, etc., must have passed fire-retardant tests specified in FAR 23.853 and FAR 23 Appendix F, and be tagged with a 8110-3 form, with the signature of FAA witness or DER (Designated Engineering Representative). ... Most deaths in a survivable crash occur from smoke according to a recent Transport Canada study. And airliners use approved materials.

"Per FAR 23.853a, all aircraft must use interior materials that are 'flame-resistant' not 'fire-retardant' as you specified. The FAA does not define, nor does FAR 23 specify, the term 'fireretardant.' 'Flame-resistant,' per FAR 1, means 'not susceptible to combustion to the point of propagating a flame, beyond safe limits, after the ignition source is removed.' In my (non-lawyer) opinion, the only requirement necessary in order to be able to use alternate fabrics in your aircraft is a simple logbook statement by the installer attesting to the fact that the material did not propagate a flame once the ignition source is removed. ... "The extensive FAR 23 Appendix F testing procedure is the 'Acceptable test procedure for self-extinguishing materials' for showing compliance with FAR 23.853. However, the need for this testing procedure is only called out in FAR 23.853 section (d); however, section (d) applies to 'commuter category airplanes' only.

SLIDE RAFT

An escape slide which, when detached from the aircraft, can be used as a life-raft An evacuation slide is an inflatable slide used to evacuate an aircraft quickly. An escape slide is required on all commercial (passenger carrying) aircraft where the door sill height is such that, in the event of an evacuation, passengers would be unable to "step down" from the door uninjured (Federal Aviation Administration requires slides on all aircraft doors where the floor is 6 feet (1.8 m) or more above the ground). Escape slides are packed and held within the door structure inside the slide bustle, a protruding part of the inside of an aircraft door that varies in size depending on both the size of the aircraft and the size of the door. Many, but not all slides are also designed to double as life rafts in case of a water landing

Aircraft Communications Addressing and Reporting System (ACARS) is a digital data link system for transmission of short, relatively simple messages between aircraft and ground stations via radio or satellite. The protocol, which was designed by ARINC to replace their VHF voice service and deployed in 1978,[1] uses telex formats. SITA later augmented their worldwide ground data network by adding radio stations to provide ACARS service. Over the next 20 years, ACARS will be superseded by the Aeronautical Telecommunications Network (ATN) protocol for Air Traffic Control communications and by the Internet Protocol for airline person or a system on board may create a message and send it via ACARS to a system or user on the ground, and vice versa. Messages may be sent either automatically or manually.

CABIN INTER COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

PASSENGER SERVICE UNIT

PSU is an abbreviation in

aviation for Passenger Service Unit. This aircraft component is situated above each seat row in the overhead panel above the passenger seats in the cabin of airliners. Amongst other things a PSU contains reading lights, loudspeakers, illuminated signs and automatically deployed oxygen masks and also louvres providing conditioned air.

JUMP SEAT
A jump seat (or jump seat), in

aviation refers to an auxiliary seat for individuals other than normal passengers who are not operating the aircraft.[1] In general, the term 'jump seat' can also refer to a seat in any type of vehicle which can fold up out of the way; vehicles include carriages, automobiles, vans, busses, fire tenders, and taxicabs. The term originated in the USA circa 1860 for a movable carriage seat.

 In aircraft, jump seats

which are officially termed auxiliary crew stations can be located in cockpits or passenger cabins. In cockpits, jump seats are provided for individuals who are not operating the aircraft.

ASTHMA ATTACK

Asthma (from the Greek , asthma, "panting") is the common chronic inflammatory disease of the airways characterized by variable and recurring symptoms, reversible airflow obstruction, and bronchospasm.[1] Symptoms include wheezing, coughing, chest tightness, and shortness of breath.[2] Asthma is clinically classified according to the frequency of symptoms, forced expiratory volume in 1 second (FEV1), and peak expiratory flow rate.[3] Asthma may also be classified as atopic (extrinsic) or non-atopic (intrinsic

 It is thought to be caused by a

combination of genetic and environmental factors.[5] Treatment of acute symptoms is usually with an inhaled shortacting beta-2 agonist (such as salbutamol).[6] Symptoms can be prevented by avoiding triggers, such as allergens[7] and irritants, and by inhaling corticosteroids.[8] Leukotriene antagonists are less effective than corticosteroids and thus less preferred.[9]

 Its diagnosis is usually made

based on the pattern of symptoms and/or response to therapy over time.[10] The prevalence of asthma has increased significantly since the 1970s. As of 2010, 300 million people were affected worldwide.[11] In 2009 asthma caused 250,000 deaths globally.[12] Despite this, with proper control of asthma with step down therapy, prognosis is generally good.[13]

 An asthma attack is a sudden

worsening of asthma symptoms caused by the tightening of muscles around your airways (bronchospasm). During the asthma attack, the lining of the airways also becomes swollen or inflamed and thicker mucus -- more than normal -is produced. All of these factors -bronchospasm, inflammation, and mucus production -- cause symptoms of an asthma attack such as difficulty breathing, wheezing, coughing, shortness of breath, and difficulty performing normal daily activities. Other symptoms of an asthma attack include:

Severe wheezing when breathing both in and out Coughing with asthma that won't stop Very rapid breathing Chest pain or pressure Tightened neck and chest muscles, called retractions Difficulty talking Feelings of anxiety or panic Pale, sweaty face Blue lips or fingernails Or worsening symptoms despite use of your medications

Without immediate asthma medicine and asthma treatment, your breathing will become more labored, and wheezing may get louder. If you use a peak flow meter during an asthma attack, your personal best reading will probably be reduced. As your lungs continue to tighten during the asthma attack, you will be unable to use the peak flow meter at all. Gradually, your lungs will tighten so much during the asthma attack that there is not enough air movement to produce wheezing. This is sometimes called the "silent chest," and it is a dangerous sign. You may need to be taken to a hospital immediately with a severe asthma attack. Unfortunately, some people interpret the disappearance of wheezing during the asthma attack as a sign of improvement and fail to get prompt emergency care. If you do not receive adequate treatment for an asthma attack, you will eventually be unable to speak and will develop a bluish coloring around your lips. This color change, known as "cyanosis," means you have less and less oxygen in your blood. Without immediate aggressive treatment in an intensive care unit, you will lose consciousness and eventually die.

PRECAUTIONS FOR ASTHMA

Morning walk is a panacea for asthma patients. It should be included in daily life. It makes your lungs strong and corrects respiratory system. At morning time the air is clean and refreshing and works like a healing power. At this time there is less pollution. Asthma patients should practice yoga everyday. Some common and easy exercises like anulom and vilom (taking breath from one nostril and leave it from another) should be practiced. These exercises play a very important role in making you asthma free. The habit of early bed should be developed. Go to bed early and get up early in the morning. In this way he can improve his daily habits.

 Asthma patients should avoid

smoking completely. Smoking fills the system with many toxins and the respiratory system gets flooded with them. These toxins are major irritants to the respiratory tract and create an undue pressure on the system that may be too much for an asthmatic to handle. An asthmatic may get more bronchial spasms and is more likely to be affected with respiratory infections if he continues to smoke.

 An asthma patient should take light

food daily. The greasy and spicy food stuff must be avoided from. The food must be fat free. Vegetables and fruits should be taken. You should avoid from fast food as far as possible. It will help you from cough. You shouldnt take stale food as it may cause you asthmatic attacks. Always take nutritious food which is helpful in keeping you healthy and fit.

 Asthma patients should always

avoid from cold as it can cause you asthmatic attacks. Whenever you feel whistling sound in your lungs then you should be very careful. At that you can take boiled eggs. You can take clove and honey at an odd time of attack. You should be careful when you are wiping something dusty things. You room must be airy and free from humidity.

 The best precaution of asthma is to avoid

from allergenic situations. Usually the main reason of asthma is the dusty atmosphere. Where very small organisms are found can cause you severe asthmatic attacks. Sometimes if you have attacks of asthma then dont lose heart. If possible then chant OM and make it a habit your life. Im sure it will give you mental and spiritual peace. It will cultivate the habit of living a pious life.

AIR SICKNESS

Airsickness is a sensation which is induced by air travel.[1] It is a specific form of motion sickness, and is considered a normal response in healthy individuals. Airsickness occurs when the central nervous system receives conflicting messages from the body (including the inner ear, eyes and muscles) affecting balance and equilibrium. The inner ear is particularly important in the maintenance of balance and equilibrium because it contains sensors for both angular (rotational) and linear motion. Airsickness is usually a combination of spatial disorientation, nausea and vomiting.[2] Experimentally, airsickness can be eliminated in monkeys by removing part of the cerebellum, namely the nodulus of the vermis.[3]

SIGNS & SYMPTOMS

Common signs and symptoms

of airsickness include: Nausea, vomiting, vertigo, loss of appetite, cold sweating, skin pallor, difficulty concentrating, confusion, drowsiness, headache, and increased fatigue.[1] Severe airsickness may cause a person to become completely incapacitated.[1

SUSCEPTIBILITY TO AIRSICKNESS

The following factors increase some people's susceptibility to airsickness: Fatigue, stress, and anxiety, are some factors that can increase susceptibility to motion sickness of any type. The use of alcohol, drugs, and medications may also contribute to airsickness. Additionally, airsickness is more common in women (especially during menstruation or pregnancy), young children, and individuals prone to other types of motion sickness.[4] Although airsickness is uncommon among experienced pilots, it does occur with some frequency in student pilots.[2]

AVOIDING AIR SICKNESS

Choosing seats with the

smoothest ride in regards to pitch (the seats over the wings in an airplane).[1] Sitting facing forward while focusing on distant objects rather than trying to read or look at something inside the airplane. Eating dry crackers, olives or suck on a lemon, to dry out the mouth, lessening nausea. Drinking a carbonated beverage.

TREATMENT OF AIR SICKNESS

Medication Medications that may alleviate the symptoms of airsickness[1] include: meclozine (Antivert, Bonine) dimenhydrinate (Dramamine)[5] diphenhydramine (Benadryl) scopolamine (available in both patch and oral form).[6] ginger capsules [7] Pilots who are susceptible to airsickness should not take anti-motion sickness medications (prescription or over-the-counter).[1][2] These medications can make one drowsy or affect brain functions in other ways.

SHOCK
Shock is a life-threatening

medical condition and is a medical emergency. SYMPTOMS OF SHOCK The main symptom of shock is low blood pressure. Other symptoms include rapid, shallow breathing; cold, clammy skin; rapid, weak pulse; dizziness, fainting, or weakness.

 NonPharmacologic Remedies A method to increase pilot resistance to airsickness

consists of repetitive exposure to the flying conditions that initially resulted in airsickness. In other words, repeated exposure to the flight environment decreases an individuals susceptibility to subsequent airsickness.[1] Recently, several devices have been introduced that are intended to reduce motion sickness through stimulation of various body parts (usually the wrist). There are numerous alternative remedies for motion sickness. The most popular are ginger derivatives, such as ginger tea or powdered ginger capsules.[7]

 There are several types of shock: septic shock

caused by bacteria, anaphylactic shock caused by hypersensitivity or allergic reaction, cardiogenic shock from heart damage, hypovolemic shock from blood or fluid loss, and neurogenic shock from spinal cord trauma.

TREATMENT FOR SHOCK

Treatment for shock depends on the cause. Tests will determine the cause and severity. Usually IV fluids are administered in addition to medications that raise blood pressure.
Septic shock is treated with antibiotics and fluids. Anaphylactic shock is treated with diphenhydramine (Benadryl),

epinephrine (an "Epi-pen"), and steroid medications (solu-medrol). Cardiogenic shock is treated by identifying and treating the underlying cause. Hypovolemic shock is treated with fluids (saline) in minor cases, and blood transfusions in severe cases. Neurogenic shock is the most difficult to treat as spinal cord damage is often irreversible. Immobilization, anti-inflammatories such as steroids and surgery are the main treatments.

Shock prevention includes learning ways to prevent heart disease, injuries, dehydration and other causes of shock.

FRACTURE
A fracture is an injury to a bone when the

tissue of the bone is broken. There are many types of fractures. That's because a fracture is named by the bone involved, the part of the bone, and the description of the break. A complete fracture, is a bone break that completely severs the bone across its width. When you hear about a complex fracture, that means that the soft tissue around the bone is extremely damaged. A fragmented fracture is fun, if you like puzzles.

TYPES OF FRACTURE
A fragment fracture results in many

broken bone pieces. When the end of a broken bone tears through the skin, we have what you call a compound or open fracture. When a simple fracture occurs, the bone does not break the skin. Then we have the multiple fracture. A multiple fracture refers to a break in which there are several fracture lines in the bone. A multiple fracture may also mean, a fracture of several bones at one time or from the same injury. There isn't much you can do in the situation of a fracture. There are first aid kits that are available that contain splints, aspirin, tape, gauze, and other bandages.

TO HANDLE THE FRACTURE

You should go get professional attention right away. Though you should probably try not to move the broken area at all. If you do have to move around, move yourself or the victim as little as possible. Moving may cause greater damage to the bone or body. Knowledge of first aid is a great idea. There aren't many things to remember to keep the patient comfortable until the patient is treated by medically trained personnel. There are articles you may check out on this web site about first responder information, using a first aid kit, survival information, travel first aid kit, and trauma injuries. The trauma injury article is a great article if you need information on what to do in a trauma situation. The trauma injury article has great information on what to do in a trauma situation.

STROKE
A stroke is a condition

where a blood clot or ruptured artery or blood vessel interrupts blood flow to an area of the brain. A lack of oxygen and glucose (sugar) flowing to the brain leads to the death of brain cells and brain damage, often resulting in an impairment in speech, movement, and memory.

TYPES OF STROKE

The two main types of stroke include ischemic stroke and hemorrhagic stroke. Ischemic stroke accounts for about 75% of all strokes and occurs when a blood clot, or thrombus, forms that blocks blood flow to part of the brain. If a blood clot forms somewhere in the body and breaks off to become free-floating, it is called an embolus. This wandering clot may be carried through the bloodstream to the brain where it can cause ischemic stroke. A hemorrhagic stroke occurs when a blood vessel on the brain's surface ruptures and fills the space between the brain and skull with blood (subarachnoid hemorrhage) or when a defective artery in the brain bursts and fills the surrounding tissue with blood (cerebral hemorrhage). Both result in a lack of blood flow to the brain and a buildup of blood that puts too much pressure on the brain.

CAUSE OF SMALLER & LARGER STROKES

Smaller strokes may result in minor

problems, such as weakness in an arm or leg. Larger strokes may lead to paralysis or death. Many stroke patients are left with weakness on one side of the body, difficulty speaking, incontinence, and bladder problems.

THE TYPE OF PERSON WHO GETS STROKE & HE SUFFERS FROM STROKE
Anyone can suffer from stroke. Although many risk factors for stroke are out of our control, several can be kept in line through proper nutrition and medical care. Risk factors for stroke include the following: Over age 55 Male African American, Hispanic or Asian/Pacific Islander A family history of stroke High blood pressure High cholesterol Smoking cigarettes

Diabetes Obesity and overweight Cardiovascular disease A previous stroke or transient ischemic attack (TIA) High levels of homocysteine (an amino acid in blood) Birth control use or other hormone therapy Cocaine use Heavy use of alcohol.

CAUSES OF STROKE
Ischemic strokes are ultimately caused by a thrombus or embolus that blocks blood flow to

the brain. Blood clots (thrombus clots) usually occur in areas of the arteries that have been damaged by atherosclerosis from a buildup of plaques. Embolus type blood clots are often caused by atrial fibrillation - an irregular pattern of heart beat that leads to blood clot formation and poor blood flow.

TYPES OF STROKES CAUSED

Hemorrhage strokes can be caused by

uncontrolled high blood pressure, a head injury, or aneurysms. High blood pressure is the most common cause of cerebral hemorrhage, as it causes small arteries inside the brain to burst. This deprives brain cells of blood and dangerously increases pressure on the brain.

 Aneurysms - abnormal blood-filled pouches

that balloon out from weak spots in the wall of an artery - are the most common cause of subarachnoid hemorrhage. If an aneurysm ruptures, blood spills into the space between the surfaces of the brain and skull, and blood vessels in the brain may spasm. Aneurysms are often caused or made worse by high blood pressure.

SYMPTOMS OF STROKE
Within a few minutes of having a stroke, brain cells begin to die and symptoms can become

present. It is important to recognize symptoms, as prompt treatment is crucial to recovery. Common symptoms include: Dizziness, trouble walking, loss of balance and coordination Speech problems Numbness, weakness, or paralysis on one side of the body Blurred, blackened, or double vision Sudden severe headache

 A possible sign that a stroke is about to occur

is called a transient ischemic attack (TIA) - a temporary interruption in blood flow to part of the brain. Symptoms of TIA are similar to stroke but last for a shorter time period and do not leave noticeable permanent damage.

DIAGNOSIS OF STROKE

A stroke is a medical emergency, and anyone suspected of having a stroke should be taken to a hospital immediately so that tests can be run and the correct treatment can be provided as quickly as possible. Physicians have several tools available to screen for stroke risk and diagnose an active stroke. These include: Physical assessment - blood pressure tests and blood tests to see cholesterol levels, blood sugar levels, and amino acid levels

Ultrasound - a wand waved over the carotid arteries in the neck can provide a picture that indicates any narrowing or clotting Arteriography - a catheter is inserted into the arteries to inject a dye that can be picked up by X-rays Computerized tomography (CT) scan - a scanning device that creates a 3-D image that can show aneurysms, bleeding, or abnormal vessels within the brain Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) - a magnetic field generates a 3-D view of the brain to see tissue damaged by stroke CT and MRI with angiography - scans that are aided by a dye that is injected into the blood vessels in order to provide clearer and more detailed images Echocardiography - an ultrasound that makes images of the heart to check for embolus

TREATMENT FOR STROKE

The primary goal in treating ischemic stroke is to restore blood flow to the brain. This will be

attempted using blood clot-busting drugs such as aspirin, heparin, or tissue plasminogen activators that must be administered within three hours of the stroke. In addition, surgical procedures may be performed that can open up or widen arteries. These include carotid endarterectomy (removal of plaque and widening of the carotid artery) and angioplasty (a balloon that widens the cartoid artery and is held open with a metallic mesh tube called a stent

TREATMENT FOR HEMORRHAGIC STROKE

Hemorrhagic stroke is treated differently than ischmic

stroke. Surgical methods used to treat this stroke variant include aneurysm clipping, aneurysm embolisation, and arteriovenous malformation (AVM) removal. Aneurysm clipping consists of a small clamp placed at the base of the aneurysm that isolates it from the circulation of it's attached artery and keeps the aneurysm from bursting or re-bleeding. Aneurysm embolisation (coiling) uses a catheter inserted into the aneurysm to deposit a tiny coil that coil fills the aneurysm, causing clotting and sealing off the aneurysm off from arteries. AVM removal is a surgical procedure to remove usually smaller AVMs or AMVs that are in more accessible portion of the brain in order to eliminate the risk of rupture.

 Most stroke victims will require rehabilitation

after the event. A person's condition is generally dependent on the area of the brain and the amount of tissue that was damaged. It is common for the rehabilitation process to include speech therapy, occupational therapy, physical therapy, and family education.

PREVENTION OF STROKE
One way to prevent a stroke is to notice a transient ischemic

attack (TIA) - or mini stroke - that provides symptoms similar to stroke. Knowing the symptoms of stroke can lead to earlier treatment and better recovery. Much of stroke prevention is based on living a healthy lifestyle. This includes: Knowing and controlling blood pressure Finding out if you have atrial fibrillation Not smoking Lowering cholesterol, sodium, and fat intake Following a healthy diet Drinking alcohol only in moderation Treating diabetes properly

 Exercising regularly. Moderate aerobic fitness can reduce stroke risk, a study found. Managing stress Not using drugs A study found that drinking three cups of tea per day reduces the risk of stroke Taking preventive medications such as antiplatelet and anticoagulant drugs to prevent blood clots Cholesterol lowering drugs can prevent stroke recurrence .

EPILEPSY
A person having a severe seizure may cry out, fall to the floor unconscious, twitch or move

uncontrollably, drool, or even lose bladder control. Within minutes, the attack is over, and the person regains consciousness but is exhausted and dazed. This is the image most people have when they hear the word epilepsy. However, this type of seizure -- a generalized tonic-clonic seizure -- is only one kind of epilepsy. There are many other kinds, each with a different set of symptoms.

 Epilepsy was one of the first brain disorders

to be described. It was mentioned in ancient Babylon more than 3,000 years ago. The strange behavior caused by some seizures has contributed through the ages to many superstitions and prejudices.

 The word epilepsy is derived from the Greek

word for "attack." People once thought that those with epilepsy were being visited by demons or gods. However, in 400 B.C., the early physician Hippocrates suggested that epilepsy was a disorder of the brain -- and we now know that he was right.

 Epilepsy is a brain disorder in which clusters of nerve

cells, or neurons, in the brain sometimes signal abnormally. Neurons normally generate electrochemical impulses that act on other neurons, glands, and muscles to produce human thoughts, feelings, and actions. In epilepsy, the normal pattern of neuronal activity becomes disturbed, causing strange sensations, emotions, and behavior, or sometimes convulsions, muscle spasms, and loss of consciousness. During a seizure, neurons may fire as many as 500 times a second, much faster than normal. In some people, this happens only occasionally; for others, it may happen up to hundreds of times a day.

CAUSES OF EPILEPSY
Many famous people in history had or may have had epilepsy, including world leaders like Julius Caesar, writers like Lewis Carroll who wrote Alice in Wonderland, artists like Vincent van Gogh, and athletes like Chanda Gunn, goaltender for the US Olympic hockey team. The causes of epilepsy can be divided into two groups: brain injuries and chemical imbalances in the brain. Anything that injures the brain can lead to seizures. But in over half the cases no

cause can be identified

TYPES OF EPILEPSY
The type of injury that can lead to a seizure is agedependent. Seizures in children often are caused by birth traumas, infections, such as meningitis, congenital abnormalities or high fevers. Seizures in the middle years commonly are

caused by head injuries, infections, alcohol, stimulant drugs or medication side effects. In the elderly, brain tumors and strokes cause a higher proportion of seizures. Not all seizures result from a structural problem

TREATMENT OF EPILEPSY
Accurate diagnosis of the type of epilepsy a person has is crucial for finding an effective

treatment. There are many different ways to treat epilepsy. Currently available treatments can control seizures at least some of the time in about 80 percent of people with epilepsy. However, another 20 percent about 600,000 people with epilepsy in the United States have intractable seizures, and another 400,000 feel they get inadequate relief from available treatments. These statistics make it clear that improved treatments are desperately needed

 Doctors who treat epilepsy come from many different fields of medicine. They include

neurologists, pediatricians, pediatric neurologists, internists, and family physicians, as well as neurosurgeons and doctors called epileptologists who specialize in treating epilepsy. People who need specialized or intensive care for epilepsy may be treated at large medical centers and neurology clinics at hospitals, or by neurologists in private practice. Many epilepsy treatment centers are associated with university hospitals that perform research in addition to providing medical care.

WHEEL CHAIR PASSENGER (WCHR)

All airlines must ensure availability of wheel chairs in

working conditions and provided to passengers when needed. Passengers having their own wheel chairs and who wish to check in the same as registered baggage may be permitted to do so and the airlines wheel chair may be provided for transportation to/from aircraft at both departure and arrival stations. If the passenger has checked-in his own wheel chair, the same should be delivered at the aircraft side before disembarkation, if required

MEDICAL FORM FOR WCHR PASSENGER

Name and surname of guest: Guest reference number Flight nr: JE Date: Cell phone nr: JE Date:

Please complete the form and fax it back to us as soon as possible to : 086 522 2951
Please have your medical form and your confirmation ( sms/email/fax ) from the medical department with you at time of check-in. Medical guests may not make use of the Self Service Check-in Kiosk. Please select one of the following options: MAAS- Meet and assist- requires assistance to and from the aircraft, but no wheelchair is needed. WCHR-Require wheelchair to and from the aircraft but can walk up/down the stairs WCHS- Wheelchair to and from aircraft and assistance up/down the stairs WCHC- Wheelchair to and from aircraft up/down stairs and in cabin BLIND/DEAF- please advise if you have a service animal? Please specify the reason for the special request? ( elderly, sick, accident, young guest, quadriplegic, etc.) Age of guest (years) (please tick) Are you able to walk up/down the stairs without assistance? YES NO

Are you able to walk long distances? YES NO

Are you able to manage in the cabin unaided? YES NO Are you able to sit unaided for the duration of the flight? YES NO Are you able to eat/drink unaided? YES NO Are you able to control bowels/bladder ? YES NO Other important information: I have read the terms and conditions for Mango special needs and disabled passengers (Tick) Please be advised that if you have any medical conditions that need clearance from a doctor as per our terms and conditions you must attach a letter from your attending physician. This letter must clearly state that you are fit to travel. For any questions please contact us on 086 111 3818 (Our office hours are Mon - Fri 8:00-16:30. For after-hour assistance call 0861 1626 46.) Date: Signature

EMERGENCY EQUIPMENTS
NAME OF THE EMERGENCY

EQUIPMENT:- SMOKE HOOD, A smoke hood is a protective device similar in concept to a gas mask. A translucent airtight bag seals around the head of the wearer while an air filter held in the mouth connects to the outside atmosphere and is used to breathe. Smoke hoods are intended to protect victims of fire from the effects of smoke inhalation.[1][2][3]

PARTS OF THE EMERGENCY EQUIPMENT:The most important part of a smoke hood is the filter that provides protection from the toxic byproducts of combustion. Virtually all smoke hood designs utilize some form of activated charcoal filter and particulate filter to screen out corrosive fumes like ammonia and chlorine, as well as acid gases like hydrogen chloride and hydrogen sulfide. The defining characteristic of an effective smoke hood is the ability to convert deadly carbon monoxide to relatively harmless carbon dioxide through a catalytic process. Smoke hoods present on aircraft, also called Protective Breathing Equipment (or PBEs), typically generate oxygen for approximately 30 seconds. The oxygen is kept in a closed circuit, usually thanks to a tight neck seal. A scrubber system may be present to reduce the levels of carbon dioxide, and is breathable for around 20 minutes. When the oxygen supply ends, the hood must be removed to avoid suffocation.

 PREFLIGHT CHECKS OF THE EMERGENCY EQUIPMENT: The smoke hood should:

1) Offer protection from the main lethal fire gases, Carbon Monoxide, Hydrogen Cyanide, Hydrogen Chloride, etc. 2) Offer at least 15 minutes of protection from high concentrations of these lethal fire gases. 3) Be tested to an appropriate national standard such as the European Standard EN 403.

4) Provide a good neck seal to keep out lethal gases and particulate matter.
5) Allow good visibility when donned as you will need to be able to see as much as possible.

 USAGE OF THE EMERGENCY EQUIPMENT: Smoke Hoods provide basic respiratory protection from toxic smoke, Carbon Monoxide, Hydrogen Cyanide, Acrolein and Hydrogen Chloride. These toxic gases are commonly

emitted during fires containing ordinary home and business combustibles such as carpet, furniture and office equipment.

OXYGEN BOTTLE
NAME OF THE EMERGENCY

EQUIPMENT:A small gas cylinder of oxygen used in mountain climbing, scuba diving & in flight etc. PARTS OF THE EMERGENCY EQUIPMENT:REMOVABLE METAL CAP TOB IN BRONZE VALVE SAFETY FUSE PLUG & DISK PRESSED STEEL NECK RING.

 PREFLIGHT CHECKS OF THE EMERGENCY

EQUIPMENT: The oxygen bottle is checked before flight take off, by watching it if the needle is pointing green, then the bottle is filled with oxygen. If it is pointing red then the bottle is said to be without oxygen.

 USAGE OF THE EMERGENCY

EQUIPMENT: The oxygen bottle is given to asthma patient, incase if he has breathing problem. It is used in flight also.

FIRE AXE
NAME OF THE EMERGENCY

EQUIPMENT: Fire axe It has a pick-shaped pointed poll (area of the head opposite the cutting edge). It is often decorated in vivid colors to make it easily visible during an emergency. Its primary use is for breaking down doors and windows.

 PARTS OF THE EMERGENCY EQUIPMENT: It has sharp edge, with a handle & axe comes

in different colours. PREFLIGHT CHECKS OF THE EMERGENCY EQUIPMENT: It is often decorated in vivid colors to make it easily visible during an emergency.

 USAGE OF THE EMERGENCY

EQUIPMENT: Fire axe is used during emergencies like, if there is sparks coming out from the wire, then with the help of the fire axe we can cut it.

ASBESTOS GLOVES
NAME OF THE EMERGENCY

EQUIPMENT: ASBESTOS GLOVES These are provided to safeguard the users hands from the fire & enable him\ her to negotiate with the high temperature emitted by very hot metal parts, which the user might have to touch during the fire fighting activity.

 PARTS OF THE EMERGENCY EQUIPMENT: Finger cap (Kevlar reinforced) Nomex felt Teflon Non reinforced Mylar three layers scrim

between Chiffon RT 157 Nomex felt Teflon fabric & reinforced aluminized Mylar three layers

 USAGE OF THE EMERGENCY

EQUIPMENT: Asbestos gloves are used during fire fighting, to protect hands from fire these gloves are used.

FIRE EXTINGUISHER
NAME OF THE EMERGENCY

EQUIPMENT: FIRE EXTINGUISHER A fire extinguisher or extinguisher, flame extinguisher is an active fire protection device used to extinguish or control small fires, often in emergency situations.

 PARTS OF THE EMERGENCY

EQUIPMENT:Handle/ trigger Safety pin Indicator Inspection tag Tank Hose or nozzle Label.

 PREFLIGHT CHECKS OF THE EMERGENCY

EQUIPMENT: Fire extinguishers are only tested & inspected annually by a service engineer A suitable departmental responsible person should ensure that a regularly check of the fie extinguishers in the building or their area of responsibility is undertaken.

 USAGE OF THE EMERGENCY

EQUIPMENT: It is used if there is fire in the oven.

OXYGEN MASK
NAME OF THE EMERGENCY

EQUIPMENT: OXYGEN MASK An oxygen mask provides a method to transfer breathing oxygen gas from a storage tank to the lungs. Oxygen masks may cover the nose and mouth (oral nasal mask) or the entire face (full-face mask). They may be made of plastic, silicone, or rubber.

 PARTS OF THE EMERGENCY

EQUIPMENT: Amplifiers convert the oxygen masks M-101 microphone to work with civilian aircraft radios. CRU-60 adapter, replacement three pin and quick disconnect connectors for the MBU-12/P oxygen mask CX-4707 Cord spiraling down the hose. These are the helmet cords that are used with that cord.

 These connectors are used to attach

the MBU-12/P mask to oxygen mask receivers on a pilots helmet. A left and a right bayonet connector is required for each mask. Replacement dust cover for face piece of MBU-12/P. Plastic cover with elastic band helps keep contaminates and dust from face piece, when not in use.

 Along with the capped T-Nut this self

sealing screw holds an oxygen mask strap on to the MBU-12/P face piece. Along with the self sealing screw, this Tnut holds an oxygen mask strap on to the MBU-12/P face piece.

 The adjustable strap and buckle

attaches the MBU-12/P face piece to the offset bayonets. Four straps are required per mask. Replacement Delivery Tube for MBU12/P. A 4-wire Coiled communications cord with U-173/U Connector plus . attachments to mask microphone and earphones.

 PREFLIGHT CHECKS OF THE EMERGENCY

EQUIPMENT: A simple oxygen mask has open side ports that allow room air to enter the mask and dilute the oxygen, as well as allowing exhaled carbon dioxide to leave the containment space. It also has narrow plastic tubing fixed to the bottom of the mask that is used to connect the mask to an oxygen source. An adjustable elastic band is connected to each side of the mask and slides over the head and above the ears to hold the mask securely in place. The purpose of nasal cannulas and oxygen face masks is to deliver oxygen in as concentrated a form as required for patients who are hypoxic.

 USAGE OF THE EMERGENCY

EQUIPMENT: It is used for cardiac , shock, severe blood loss patients.

MEGA PHONE
NAME OF THE EMERGENCY

EQUIPMENT: MEGA PHONE A megaphone, speakingtrumpet, bullhorn, blow horn, or loud hailer is a portable, usually hand-held, cone-shaped horn used to amplify a persons voice or other sounds towards a targeted direction.

 PARTS OF THE EMERGENCY

EQUIPMENT: Specification: Impedance: 500 ohms +/30% Sensitivity: -75 +/-4dB Frequency Response: 400-8KHz Cable Length:... Equipment: Stamping machines, Hydraulic press machines, Auto-Turning machines, CNC-Turning machines, Milling machines, Precision wire cutting machines, more than 60 sets in total; 2) Material: iron, carbon steel, stainless steel, brass, copper, alloy steel, aluminum, cold rolled steel with various plating; 3) Surface treatment: kinds of plating

 Stamping Parts according to customers

require material: according to customer... Electrical... Casting machining parts is one of our mainly business. Those precision casting products are made from casting, and then processed through turning, drilling, and grinding to be a part.

 USAGE OF THE EMERGENCY

EQUIPMENT: IT IS USED TO ANNOUNCE INCASE OF ANY EMERGENCY.

NAME OF THE EMERGENCY EQUIPMENT:ELECTRONIC LIGHT TRANSMITTER(ELT) Distress radio beacons, also known as emergency beacons, ELT or EPIRB, are tracking transmitters which aid in the detection and location of boats, aircraft, and people in distress. Strictly, they are radio beacons that interface with worldwide offered service of Cospas-Sarsat, the international satellite system for search and rescue (SAR). When manually activated, or automatically activated upon immersion, such beacons send out a distress signal. The signals are monitored worldwide and the location of the distress is detected by non-geostationary satellites, and can be located by trilateration in combination with triangulation, respecting the varying quality of the signal received.[1]

ELECTRONIC LIGHT TRANSMITTER(ELT)

 ELTs are specifically designed for use on aircrafts. They can

be activated automatically under the force of an impact such as a crash, or manually by someone aboard. Currently, ELTs available to aircraft owners operate on two different frequencies for satellite alerting: 406 MHz digital emergency beacons and 121.5/243 MHz analog emergency beacons. On February 1st 2009, 121.5/243.0 MHz emergency beacons will no longer alert search and rescue authorities thought Cospas-Sarsat, the international satellite system for search and rescue. Only signals from 406 MHz emergency beacons will be processed.

LIFE JACKET

 A lifejacket is a type of personal flotation device designed

to keep a person's airway clear of the water whether the wearer is conscious or unconscious. They are either made from two layers of bonded polyurethane to be inflated or from foam. The inflatable lifejacket is probably the most widely used for both leisure and commercial activities, while the foam lifejacket is predominantly designed either for children, or for emergency use (such as on ferries, cruise ships etc.). The 100N lifejacket is for those who may have to wait for rescue but are likely to be in sheltered, calm water. It may not have sufficient buoyancy to protect someone who is unable to help himself or herself and may not roll an unconscious person on to his or her back, particularly someone in heavy clothing

DITCHING
GROUP 1

RAJEEV
SAGAR KIRTHI LALITA

 Here there is a

prepared emergency The all passengers & cabin crew are in BRACE POSITION .

 Here the flight is

landed & the flight steward & cabin crew is telling to Evacuate the passengers. OPEN SEAT BELTS, COME THIS WAY, JUMP & SLIDE

 If there is

unprepared emergency the cabin crew will shout "heads down stay down

 Here the flight is

landed & the flight steward & cabin crew is telling to Evacuate the passengers. OPEN SEAT BELTS, COME THIS WAY, INFLATE YOUR LIFE JACKET

Oven fire drill(Group-02)

Arjun

Nagesh
Harsha Nutan kiran

Oven fire drill

Here arjun is switching of f

the lights The other flight steward HARSHA is helping him by giving all the fire fighting equipments required from their nearest accessible location.

 The senior cabin

crew NAGESH is informing the captain/commande r immediately. That there is a fire on the oven & continue doing so about the progress.

 The other two

cabin crew NUTAN & KIRAN were handling the crowd in flight. & telling the passengers to keep there head low & cover your mouth. & move from affected area

GROUP 03:bomb scare

Ravina

Prajwal
Franky Tousif Amol

 RAVINA as senior cabin

crew got information about the bomb as she is explaining to the other cabin crew to handle the situation

 STEP-2 The minute cabin crews

got information about the bomb they goes immediately to the passengers and they asks for a bag to check bomb

 STEP-3
TAKING THE BOMB AWAY

As the cabin crew takes

the bag from passenger after getting information about the bomb ,so he takes the red bag.
ANTI LIFT DEVICE

 STEP-4

Placing the bomb in lavatory Flight steward AMOL and

TOUSIF are placing the bomb in lavatory by placing pillows and towels on it.

Lavatory fire drill(Group-04)

Vishwanath Divya Savitri Kavita Jotsna

 STEP-1 The flight steward VISHWANATH is fighting the fire in lavatory & attacking the the fire from the base upwards . STEP-2 The junior cabin crew JOSTNA is helping him by giving the fire fighting equipments required from their nearest accessible location.

 STEP-3 The senior cabin crew

DIVYA is informing the captain/commander immediately. That there is a fire on the LAVATORY/TOILET & continue doing so about the progress.

 STEP-4 The other two cabin

crew savitri & kavita were handling the crowd in flight. & telling the passengers to keep there head low & cover your mouth.

Group 05:dicompression
Abhishek
Anjum Suma Jyoti archana

 STEP-2

shouting the passengers to get oxygen mask WEAR YOUR OXYGEN MASK

 STEP-1 OXYGEN MASK TO THE

PASSENGERS Here the flight is take of f up to 14,000 feet. Passengers who are faint the ABHISHEK is getting oxygen mask to them.

Land evacuation(Group-6)

VINAYAK DEEPA

B B SOGRA

 STEP-1 Here there is a

prepared emergency The all passengers & cabin crew is in BRACE POSITION . If there is unprepared emergency the cabin crew will shout" heads down stay down

 Step-2
Here the flight is

landed & the flight steward & cabin crew is telling to Evacuate the passengers. OPEN SEAT BELTS, COME THIS WAY, JUMP & SLIDE

 STEP-3 If there is MOTHER

WITH INFANT & WHEEL CHAIR PASSENGER cabin crew were telling them OPEN SEAT BELTS, COME THIS WAY SIT & SLIDE

Variou duties and responsibilities of cabin crew on board Vishwanath Divya Savitri Kavita Jotsna

 STEP-1

BOARDING CARD

CHECKING Here the senior cabin crew JOSTNA checking the boarding card

 STEP-2 HELPING OUT PASSENGERS here the junior cabin crew DIVYA ,SAVITRI,KAVITA,VISH

WANATH are helping the passengers to keep their luggage in the overhead bin

 STEP-3
HELPING THE

PASSENGER Here one of the passenger is peuking so junior cabin crew SAVITRI,VISHWANATH , KAVITA are helping the passenger

STEP-4

Before the door is closed,or while it is closed, this announcement is made.

Ladies and gentlemen, on behalf of

captain khan and the entire crew, we would like to welcome you on 9w306 non stop service to delhi.we will be flying at an altitude of 35000 feet. Our flight time today/to Delhi will be of 2 hours and 10 minutes.at this time, make sure your seat backs and tray tables are in their full upright position.also make sure your seat belt is correctly fastened

thank you

 STEP-4

CLEARING THE

TABLE After serving the juice,candys,junior cabin crew VISHWANATH is clearing the table

IN FLIGHT MEAL SERVICE

STEP-1

Junior cabin crew jyoti is

giving menu card for passenger

 STEP-2 TAKING THE ORDER After giving the menu

card to the passenger, cabin crew KAVITA is taking the order.

 STEP-3

Cabin crew SAVITRI is

placing the cloth table for chicken theeka meal to the passenger.

 STEP-4
Cabin crew SAVITRI is giving

chicken theeka masala meal to the passenger and cabin crew KAVITA is serving water.

 STEP-4
SERVING THE SELECTION

OF BREADS LIKE ,GARLIC BREAD,SOFT ROLL,BROWN BREAD,POPODAMS.

 STEP-6
SERVING THE COFFEE TO

THE PASSENGER.

WELCOME ANNOUNCEMENT

BOEING 747
The Boeing 747 is a wide-body

commercial airliner and cargo transport, often referred to by its original nickname, Jumbo Jet, or Queen of the Skies. It is among the world's most recognizable aircraft,[4] and was the first wide-body ever produced. Manufactured by Boeing's Commercial Airplane unit in the United States, the original version of the 747 was two and a half times the size of the Boeing 707,[5] one of the common large commercial aircraft of the 1960s.

 First flown commercially in 1970, the 747 held the passenger capacity record for 37 years.[6] The four-engine 747 uses a double deck configuration for part of its length. It is available in passenger, freighter and other versions. Boeing designed the 747's hump-like upper deck to serve as a first class lounge or (as is the general rule today) extra seating, and to allow the aircraft to be easily converted to a

cargo carrier by removing seats and installing a front cargo door

 Boeing did so because the company expected supersonic airliners (whose development was

announced in the early 1960s) to render the 747 and other subsonic airliners obsolete, while believing that the demand for subsonic cargo aircraft would be robust into the future.[7 The 747 in particular was expected to become obsolete after 400 were sold,[8] but it exceeded its critics' expectations with production passing the 1,000 mark in 1993.[9] By December 2011, 1,427 aircraft had been built, with 97 of the 747-8 variants remaining on order.[2]

 The 747-400, the most common passenger version in service, is among the fastest airliners

in service with a high-subsonic cruise speed of Mach 0.850.855 (up to 570 mph, 920 km/h). It has an intercontinental range of 7,260 nautical miles (8,350 mi or 13,450 km).[ The 747-400 passenger version can accommodate 416 passengers in a typical threeclass layout, 524 passengers in a typical twoclass layout, or 660 passengers in a high density one-class configuration.[11]

 The newest version of the aircraft, the 747-8,

is in production and received certification in 2011. Deliveries of the 747-8F freighter version to the launch customer Cargolux began in October 2011; the 747-8I passenger version is to follow in 2012. The 747 is to be replaced by the Boeing Y3 (part of the Boeing Yellowstone Project) in the future.

 In 1963, the United States Air Force started a

series of study projects on a very large strategic transport aircraft. Although the C141 Starlifter was being introduced, they felt that a much larger and more capable aircraft was needed, especially the capability to carry outsized cargo that would not fit in any existing aircraft.

 These studies led to initial requirements for the CX-Heavy Logistics System (CX-HLS) in March

1964 for an aircraft with a load capacity of 180,000 pounds (81,600 kg) and a speed of Mach 0.75 (500 mph/805 km/h), and an unrefueled range of 5,000 nautical miles (9,260 km) with a payload of 115,000 pounds (52,200 kg). The payload bay had to be 17 feet (5.18 m) wide by 13.5 feet (4.11 m) high and 100 feet (30.5 m) long with access through doors at the front and rear.[12]

 Featuring only four engines, the design also required new engine designs with greatly

increased power and better fuel economy. On May 18, 1964, airframe proposals arrived from Boeing, Douglas, General Dynamics, Lockheed and Martin Marietta; while engine proposals were submitted by General Electric, CurtissWright, and Pratt & Whitney. After a downselect, Boeing, Douglas and Lockheed were given additional study contracts for the airframe, along with General Electric and Pratt & Whitney for the engines.[12]

 All three of the airframe proposals shared a number of features.

As the CX-HLS needed to be able to be loaded from the front, a door had to be included where the cockpit usually was. All of the companies solved this problem by moving the cockpit to above the cargo area; Douglas had a small "pod" just forward and above the wing, Lockheed used a long "spine" running the length of the aircraft with the wing spar passing through it, while Boeing blended the two, with a longer pod that ran from just behind the nose to just behind the wing.[13] In 1965 Lockheed's aircraft design and General Electric's engine design were selected for the new C-5 Galaxy transport, which was the largest military aircraft in the world at the time.[12] The nose door and raised cockpit concepts would be carried over to the design of the 747.[14] [edit] Airliner proposal

 Ultimately, the high-winged CX-HLS Boeing design was not used for the 747, although

technologies developed for their bid had an influence.[22] The original design included a fulllength double-deck fuselage with rows of eightacross seating and two aisles on the lower deck and seven-across seating and two aisles on the upper deck.[23] However, concern over evacuation routes and limited cargo-carrying capability caused this idea to be scrapped in early 1966 in favor of a wider single deck design.[1]

 The cockpit was, therefore, placed on a

shortened upper deck so that a freightloading door could be included in the nose cone; this design feature produced the 747's distinctive "bulge".[24] In early models it was not clear what to do with the small space in the pod behind the cockpit, and this was initially specified as a "lounge" area with no permanent seating.

 The 747 enjoyed a fairly smooth introduction

into service, overcoming concerns that some airports would not be able to accommodate an aircraft that large.[5

 After the initial 747-100

model, Boeing developed the 100B, a higher maximum takeoff weight (MTOW) variant, and the 100SR (Short Range), with higher passenger capacity.[71] Increased maximum takeoff weight allows aircraft to carry more fuel and have longer range.[72]

 Since the arrival of the

747-400, several stretching schemes for the 747 have been proposed.

AIRBUS A380
The Airbus A380 is a double-

deck, wide-body, four-engine jet airliner manufactured by the European corporation Airbus, a subsidiary of EADS. It is the world's largest passenger airliner. Many airports had to modify and improve their facilities to accommodate it. Designed to challenge Boeing's monopoly in the large-aircraft market, the A380 made its maiden flight on 27 April 2005 and entered initial commercial service in October 2007 with Singapore Airlines. The aircraft was known as the Airbus A3XX during much of its development, before receiving the A380 designation.

 The A380's upper deck extends along the entire

length of the fuselage, with a width equivalent to a wide-body aircraft. This allows for an A380-800's cabin with 478 square metres (5,145.1 sq ft) of floor space; 49% more floor space than the current nextlargest airliner, the Boeing 747-400 with 321 square metres (3,455.2 sq ft), and provides seating for 525 people in a typical three-class configuration or up to 853 people in all-economy class configurations. The A380-800 has a design range of 15,400 kilometers (8,300 nmi; 9,600 mi), sufficient to fly from New York to Hong Kong for example, and a cruising speed of Mach 0.85 (about 900 km/h or 560 mph at cruising altitude).

 As of January 2012 there had been 253 firm orders

for the A380, of which 68 have been delivered.[3] The largest order, for 90 aircraft, was from Emirates. In the summer of 1988, a group of Airbus engineers led by Jean Roeder began work in secret on the development of an ultra-high-capacity airliner (UHCA), both to complete its own range of products and to break the dominance that Boeing had enjoyed in this market segment since the early 1970s with its 747.[4] McDonnell Douglas unsuccessfully offered its smaller, double-deck MD-12 concept for sale.[5]

 Roeder was given approval for further evaluations of the UHCA after a formal

presentation to the President and CEO in June 1990. The megaproject was announced at the 1990 Farnborough Air Show, with the stated goal of 15% lower operating costs than the 747-400.[7] Airbus organised four teams of designers, one from each of its partners (Arospatiale, Deutsche Aerospace AG, British Aerospace, CASA) to propose new technologies for its future aircraft designs. The designs would be presented in 1992 and the most competitive designs would be used.[8]

 In January 1993, Boeing and several companies in the Airbus

consortium started a joint feasibility study of an aircraft known as the Very Large Commercial Transport (VLCT), aiming to form a partnership to share the limited market.[9][10] This joint study was abandoned two years later, Boeing's interest having declined because analysts thought that such a product was unlikely to cover the projected $15 billion development cost. Despite the fact that only two airlines had expressed public interest in purchasing such a plane, Airbus was already pursuing its own large plane project. Analysts suggested that Boeing instead would pursue stretching its 747 design, and that air travel was already moving away from the hub and spoke system that consolidated traffic into large planes, and toward more non-stop routes that could be served by smaller planes.[11

In June 1994 Airbus announced its plan to develop its own very large airliner, designated the A3XX.[12][13] Airbus considered several designs, including an odd side-by-side combination of two fuselages from the A340, which was Airbus largest jet at the time.[14] The A3XX was pitted against the VLCT study and Boeings own New Large Aircraft successor to the 747.[15][16] From 1997 to 2000, as the East Asian financial crisis darkened the market outlook, Airbus refined its design, targeting a 1520% reduction in operating costs over the existing Boeing 747400. The A3XX design converged on a double-decker layout that provided more passenger volume than a traditional single-deck design,[17][18] in line with traditional hub-and-spoke theory as opposed to the point-to-point theory of the Boeing 777,[19] after conducting an extensive market analysis with over 200 focus groups.[20][21]

 On 19 December 2000, the supervisory board of newly

restructured Airbus voted to launch an 8.8-billion programme to build the A3XX, re-christened as the A380,[22][23] with 50 firm orders from six launch customers.[24][25] The A380 designation was a break from previous Airbus families, which had progressed sequentially from A300 to A340. It was chosen because the number 8 resembles the double-deck cross section, and is a lucky number in some Asian countries where the aircraft was being marketed.[14] The aircraft configuration was finalised in early 2001, and manufacturing of the first A380 wing box component started on 23 January 2002. The development cost of the A380 had grown to 11 billion when the first aircraft was completed.[10]

PRODUCTION OF AIRBUS A380

Major structural sections of the A380 are built in France, Germany, Spain, and the United

Kingdom. Due to their size, they are brought to the assembly hall (the Jean-Luc Lagardre Plant) in Toulouse in France by surface transportation, though some parts are moved by the A300600ST Beluga aircraft used in the construction of other Airbus models.[26] A380 components are provided by suppliers from around the world; the five largest contributors, by value, are RollsRoyce, Safran, United Technologies, General Electric and Goodrich.[20]

 For the surface movement of large A380 structural components, a complex route known

as the Itinraire Grand Gabarit was developed. This involved the construction of a fleet of rollon/roll-off (RORO) ships and barges, the construction of port facilities and the development of new and modified roads to accommodate oversized road convoys.[27] The front and rear fuselage sections are shipped on one of three RORO ships from Hamburg in northern Germany to the United Kingdom.[28

 The wings are manufactured at Filton in Bristol and

Broughton in North Wales, then transported by barge to Mostyn docks, where the ship adds them to its cargo.[29] In Saint-Nazaire in western France, the ship trades the fuselage sections from Hamburg for larger, assembled sections, some of which include the nose. The ship unloads in Bordeaux. The ship then picks up the belly and tail sections from Construcciones Aeronuticas SA in Cdiz in southern Spain, and delivers them to Bordeaux. From there, the A380 parts are transported by barge to Langon, and by oversize road convoys to the assembly hall in Toulouse.[30]

 After assembly, the aircraft

are flown to Hamburg Finkenwerder Airport (XFW) to be furnished and painted. It takes 3,600 L (950 US gal) of paint to cover the 3,100 m2 (33,000 sq ft) exterior of an A380.[31] Airbus sized the production facilities and supply chain for a production rate of four A380s per month.[29]

TESTING OF AIRBUS A380

Five A380s were built for testing

and demonstration purposes.[32] The first A380, serial number MSN001 and registration FWWOW, was unveiled in Toulouse 18 January 2005.[33] Its maiden flight took place at 8:29 UTC (10:29 am local time) 27 April 2005.[34] This plane, equipped with Trent 900 engines, flew from Toulouse Blagnac International Airport with a crew of six headed by chief test pilot Jacques Rosay. After landing 3:54 hrs later, Rosay said flying the A380 had been like handling a bicycle.[35]

On 1 December 2005 the A380 achieved its maximum design speed of Mach 0.96, over its design cruise speed of Mach 0.85, in a shallow dive, completing the opening of the flight envelope.[32] In 2006 the A380 flew its first high-altitude test at Bole International Airport, Addis Ababa. It conducted its second high-altitude test at the same airport in 2009.[36]On 10 January 2006 it flew to Jos Maria Crdova International Airport in Colombia, accomplishing the transatlantic testing, and then it went to El Dorado International Airport to test the engine operation in high-altitude airports. It arrived in North America on 6 February 2006, landing in Iqaluit, Nunavut in Canada for cold-weather testing.[37]

On 14 February 2006, during the destructive wing strength certification test on MSN5000, the test wing of the A380 failed at 145% of the limit load, short of the required 150% level. Airbus announced modifications adding 30 kg to the wing to provide the required strength.[38] On 26 March 2006 the A380 underwent evacuation certification in Hamburg. With 8 of the 16 exits blocked, 853 passengers and 20 crew left the aircraft in 78 seconds, less than the 90 seconds required for certification.[39] Three days later, the A380 received European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) and United States Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) approval to carry up to 853 passengers.[40] The first A380 using GP7200 enginesserial number MSN009 and registration F-WWEAflew on 25 August 2006.[41][42] On 4 September 2006 the first full passengercarrying flight test took place.[43] The aircraft flew from Toulouse with 474 Airbus employees on board, in the first of a series of flights to test passenger facilities and comfort.[43] In November 2006 a further series of route-proving flights demonstrated the aircraft's performance for 150 flight hours under typical airline operating conditions

 Airbus obtained type

certificates for the A380841 and A380-842 model from the EASA and FAA on 12 December 2006 in a joint ceremony at the company's French headquarters.[45][46] The A380-861 model obtained its type certificate on 14 December 2007.

INCIDENTS & ACCIDENTS

The A380 has been involved in one aviation occurrence and no hull-loss accidents as of December 2011[update].[222][223] On 4 November 2010, Qantas Flight 32, en route from Singapore Changi Airport to Sydney Airport, suffered an uncontained engine failure, resulting in a series of related problems, and forcing the flight to return to Singapore. There were no injuries to the passengers, crew or people on the ground despite debris falling onto the Indonesian island of Batam.[224] The A380 was damaged sufficiently for the event to be classified as an accident.[225] Qantas subsequently grounded all of its A380s that day subject to an internal investigation taken in conjunction with the engine manufacturer Rolls-Royce plc. Other operators of Rolls-Roycepowered A380s were also affected. Investigators later determined the cause of the explosion to be an oil leak in the Trent 900 engine.[226] According to an EASA Airworthiness Directive, issued on January 20, 2012, additional inspections following the accident revealed "...a new form of rib foot cracking... The new form of cracking is more significant than the original rib foot hole cracking. It has been determined that the Type 2 cracks may develop on other aeroplanes after a period of time in service. This condition, if not detected and corrected, could potentially affect the structural integrity of the aeroplane." The AD covered twenty A380-841, A380-842 and A380-861 aircraft, that had accumulated over 1,300 hours flight. Those aircraft with under 1,800 hours flight were to be inspected within 6 weeks or 84 flights (whichever occurred first), whilst those with more than 1,800 hours flight were to be examined within four days or 14 flights.[227][228]

AIRBUS A380 VS BOEING 747-8

AIRBUS A380
Engines: Four Rolls-Royce Trent 900 turbofans or four General Electric/Pratt & Whitney GP-7200 turbofans Typical cruising speed: Mach 0.85 (850 km/h) Range: 14,800 km (8,000 nm) Max takeoff weight: 560,000 kg (1,234,600 lb) Wingspan: 79.8m (261 ft 10 in) Length: 72.75m (238 ft 8 in) Passenger seating: 555 passengers on two decks in a three-class arrangement, and up to 800 passengers in a one-class arrangement Cost: About $250 million US

Boeing 747-8 Engines: Four GEnx-2B67

BOEING 747-8

turbofans Typical cruising speed: Mach 0.855 (855 km/h) Range: 14,815 km (8,000 nm) Max takeoff weight: 435,456 kg (960,000 lb) Wingspan: 68.5 m (224 ft 9 in) Length: 74.2 m (243 ft 6 in) Passenger seating: 450 passengers in a typical threeclass configuration Cost: About $205 million to $240 million US

 Air Florida Flight 90 was a scheduled

AIR CRASH OF AIR FLORIDA FLIGHT 90

U.S. domestic passenger flight from Washington National Airport in Arlington County, Virginia, to Fort Lauderdale Hollywood International Airport in Fort Lauderdale, Florida, with a stopover at Tampa International Airport in Tampa, Florida. On January 13, 1982, the Boeing 737-200 flying Flight 90 crashed into the 14th Street Bridge over the Potomac River, killing all but four passengers and one flight attendant.

 The aircraft was carrying 74 passengers and five crewmembers when it crashed during the failed

takeoff attempt. The aircraft struck the 14th Street Bridge, which carries Interstate 395 between Washington, D.C. and Arlington County. It crushed seven occupied vehicles on the bridge and destroyed 97 feet (30 m) of guard rail[3] before it plunged through the ice into the Potomac River. The crash occurred less than two miles (3 km) from the White House and within view of both the Jefferson Memorial and The Pentagon.

 The accident killed 78 people, including four

motorists on the 14th Street Bridge. The survivors were rescued from the icy river by civilians and professionals. President Ronald Reagan commended these acts during his State of the Union speech a few days later. The National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) determined that the cause of the accident was pilot error. The pilots failed to switch on the engines' internal ice protection systems, used reverse thrust in a snowstorm prior to takeoff, and failed to abort the takeoff even after detecting a power problem while taxiing and visually identifying ice and snow buildup on the wings.

COCKPIT CREW
The pilots of Air Florida Flight 90 were Captain Larry

Wheaton, Pilot in Command (PIC), and First Officer Roger Pettit, Second in Command (SIC).[4] Summaries of each pilot were included in the NTSB official Aircraft Accident Report. Captain Larry Wheaton, 34, was hired by Air Florida in October 1978 as a first officer. He quickly upgraded to captain less than two years later, in August 1980. At the time of the accident he had approximately 8,300 total flight hours, with 2,322 hours of commercial jet experience (all logged at Air Florida). Wheaton logged 1,752 hours on the Boeing 737, the accident aircraft type, with 1,100 of those hours as captain.[5]

 Wheaton was described by fellow pilots as a quiet person, with

good operational skills and knowledge, who had operated well in high-workload flying situations. His leadership style was described as similar to other pilots. However, on May 8, 1980, Wheaton was suspended after failing a Boeing 737 company line check and was found to be unsatisfactory in the following areas: adherence to regulations, checklist usage, flight procedures such as departures and cruise control and approaches and landings. However, he resumed his duties after passing a retest on August 27, 1980.[5] On April 24, 1981, the captain received an unsatisfactory grade on a company recurrent proficiency check when he showed deficiencies in memory items, knowledge of aircraft systems and aircraft limitations. Three days later Wheaton satisfactorily passed a proficiency recheck.[5]

 First Officer Roger Pettit, 31, was employed by Air Florida on

October 3, 1980, as a first officer on the Boeing 737. At the time of the accident he had approximately 3,353 total flight hours, with 992 accumulated at Air Florida, all on the 737. From October 1977 to October 1980, Pettit was a fighter pilot in the United States Air Force, accumulating 669 flight hours as a flight examiner, instructor pilot and ground instructor in an operational F-15 unit.[5] Pettit was described by personal friends and pilots as a witty, bright, outgoing individual with an excellent command of physical and mental skills in aircraft piloting. Those who had flown with him during stressful flight operations said that during those times he remained the same witty, sharp individual, who knew his limitations. Several persons said that he was the type of pilot who would not hesitate to speak up if he knew something specific was wrong with flight operations.[5]

 Alternating the role of primary pilot

between the PIC and SIC is customary in commercial airline operations, with pilots swapping roles after each leg. One pilot is designated the Pilot Flying (PF) and the other as Pilot Not Flying (PNF); however, the PIC retains the ultimate authority for all aircraft operations and safety. Co-pilot Roger Pettit was at the controls as the PF during the Air Florida Flight 90 accident

WEATHER CONDITIONS
On January 13, 1982, Washington National Airport located in

Arlington County, Virginia, immediately across the Potomac River from Washington, D.C. was closed by a heavy snowstorm. It reopened at noon under marginal conditions as the snowfall began to slacken. The crew of Air Florida Flight 90 left Miami International Airport (MIA) in Miami, Florida at 11:00 a.m. EST and arrived at National Airport about 1:45 p.m. EST. That afternoon, the plane was to return to Fort Lauderdale Hollywood International Airport (FLL) in Dania, Florida, with an intermediate stop at Tampa International Airport. The scheduled departure time was delayed about 1 hour and 45 minutes due to the temporary closing of Washington National Airport (DCA). As the plane was readied for departure, a moderate snowfall continued and the air temperature was 24 F (4 C).[3]

IMPROPER DEICING PROCEDURES

The Boeing 737 was deiced with a mixture of heated water and

monopropylene glycol by American Airlines, under a ground service agreement with Air Florida. That agreement specified that covers for the pitots/static ports and engine inlets had to be used, but the American Airlines employees did not comply with those rules. Two different operators who chose widely different mixture percentages deiced the left and right sides of the plane. Subsequent testing of the deicing truck showed that "the mixture dispensed differed substantially from the mixture selected" (18% actual vs. 30% selected). The inaccurate mixture was the result of the replacement of the standard Trump nozzle, "which is specially modified and calibrated, with a nonmodified, commercially available nozzle." The operator had no means to determine if the proportioning valves were operating properly because no "mix monitor" was installed on the nozzle.[6]

DELAYS, POOR DECISIONS & CRASH

The plane had trouble leaving the gate when the ground services

tow motor could not get traction on the ice. For approximately 30 to 90 seconds, the crew attempted to back away from the gate using the reverse thrust of the engines, which proved futile.[7] Boeing operations bulletins had warned against using reverse thrust in those kinds of conditions.[7] Eventually, a tug ground unit properly equipped with snow chains was used to push the aircraft back from the gate. After leaving the gate, the aircraft waited in a taxi line with many other aircraft for 49 minutes before reaching the takeoff runway. The pilot apparently decided not to return to the gate for reapplication of deicing, fearing that the flight's departure would be even further delayed. More snow and ice accumulated on the wings during that period, and the crew was aware of that fact when they decided to make the takeoff.[7] Heavy snow was falling during their takeoff roll at 3:59 p.m. EST.

 Even though the temperature was freezing and it was snowing,

the crew did not activate the engine anti-ice system. Analysis of the cockpit voice recorder (CVR) determined that, during the departure checklist, the copilot announced and the pilot confirmed that the plane's own engine anti-icing system was turned off.[8] This system uses heat from the engines to prevent sensors from freezing, ensuring accurate readings.[7] During the plane's taxiing, the CVR picked up the following conversation between the captain and first officer, in which they discussed the icing situation: First Officer: "It's a losing battle trying to deice these things. It gives you a false feeling of security, that's all it does." Captain: "Well, it satisfies the Feds [government regulators]."

 Adding to the plane's troubles was the pilots'

decision to maneuver closely behind a DC-9 that was taxiing just ahead of their aircraft prior to takeoff, due to their mistaken belief that the warmth from the DC-9's engines would melt the snow and ice that had accumulated on Flight 90's wings. This action which went specifically against flight manual recommendations for an icing situation actually contributed to additional icing on the 737. By sitting behind the preceding aircraft, the exhaust gases melted the snow on the wings. During takeoff, instead of falling off the plane, this slush mixture then froze on the wings' leading edges and the engine inlet nose cone.[3]

 Neither pilot had much experience flying in snowy, cold

weather. The captain had made only eight takeoffs and landings in snowy conditions on the 737, and the copilot had flown in snow only twice.[9] As it turned out, the failure to operate the plane's engine anti-icing system caused exactly what could be expected to happen: the engine pressure ratio (EPR) thrust indicators provided false high readings. While the pilots thought they had throttled up to the correct takeoff EPR of 2.04, the actual EPR was only 1.70. The aircraft traveled almost half a mile (800 m) further down the runway than is customary before liftoff was accomplished. Survivors of the crash indicated the trip over the runway was extremely rough, with one survivor saying that he feared that they would not get airborne and would "fall off the end of the runway".

 As the takeoff roll began, First Officer Pettit noted several

times to Captain Wheaton that the instrument panel readings he was seeing did not seem to reflect reality (he was referring to the fact that the plane did not appear to have developed as much power as it needed for takeoff, despite the instruments indicating otherwise). The captain dismissed these concerns and let the takeoff proceed. Investigators later determined that there was plenty of time and space on the runway for Wheaton to have aborted the takeoff, and criticized his refusal to listen to his first officer, who was correct that the instrument panel readings were wrong. The pilot was told not to delay because another aircraft was 2.5 miles out (4 km) on final approach to the same runway.[3]

PROBLEM WITH THE INSTRUMENTATION

The following is a transcript of Flight 90's cockpit voice recorder during the plane's acceleration down the runway. It is evident that Pettit saw a problem with the instrumentation and that Wheaton shrugged off his concerns. (CAM-1 is the captain, CAM-2 is the first officer) 15:59:32 CAM-1 Okay, your throttles. 15:59:35 [SOUND OF ENGINE SPOOLUP] 15:59:49 CAM-1 Holler if you need the wipers. 15:59:51 CAM-1 It's spooled. Real cold, real cold. 15:59:58 CAM-2 God, look at that thing. That don't seem right, does it? Uh, that's not right. 16:00:09 CAM-1 Yes it is, there's eighty. 16:00:10 CAM-2 Naw, I don't think that's right. Ah, maybe it is. 16:00:21 CAM-1 Hundred and twenty. 16:00:23 CAM-2 I don't know. 16:00:31 CAM-1 Vee-one. Easy, vee-two. Transcript, Air Florida Flight 90 Cockpit Voice Recorder

WARNING THE PLANE IS IN DANGER

As the plane became briefly airborne, the flight recorder picked up the following from the cockpit, with the sound of the stick-shaker (an instrument that warns that the plane is in danger of stalling) in the background: 16:00:39 [SOUND OF STICKSHAKER STARTS AND CONTINUES UNTIL IMPACT] 16:00:41 TWR Palm 90 contact departure control. 16:00:45 CAM-1 Forward, forward, easy. We only want five hundred. 16:00:48 CAM-1 Come on forward....forward, just barely climb. 16:00:59 CAM-1 Stalling, we're falling! 16:01:00 CAM-2 This is it. We're going down, Larry.... 16:01:01 CAM-1 I know it! 16:01:01 [SOUND OF IMPACT] Transcript, Air Florida Flight 90 Cockpit Voice Recorder

 Although the 737 did manage to become airborne, it

attained a maximum altitude of just 352 feet (107 m) before it began losing altitude. Recorders later indicated that the aircraft was airborne for just 30 seconds. At 4:01 p.m. EST it crashed into the 14th Street Bridge across the Potomac River, 0.75 nautical miles (1,390 m) from the end of the runway. The plane hit six cars and a truck on the bridge, and tore away 97 feet (30 m) of the bridge's rail and 41 feet (12 m) of the bridge's wall.[3] The wrecked aircraft then plunged into the freezing Potomac River. It fell between two of the three spans of the bridge, between the I-395 northbound span (the Rochambeau Bridge) and the HOV north- and southbound spans, about 200 feet (61 m) offshore. All but the tail section quickly became submerged.

Of the people on board the aircraft:[3] Four of the five crew members (including both pilots) died One crew member was seriously injured 70 of the 74 passengers died.[3] Of the motorists on the bridge involved:[3] 4 sustained fatal injuries 1 sustained serious injuries 3 sustained minor injuries Clinging to the tail section of the broken airliner with six passengers in the ice-choked Potomac River, flight attendant Kelly Duncan inflated the only flotation device they could find and passed it to one of the more severely injured passengers, Nikki Felch. Joe Stiley, assisting fellow survivor Priscilla Tirado, was trying to tow her to shore when the Park Police helicopter assisting in the rescue returned to try to pull them to safety.

Many federal offices in downtown Washington had closed early that day in response to quickly developing blizzard conditions. Thus, there was a massive backup of traffic on almost all of the city's roads, making it very difficult for ambulances to reach the crash site. The Coast Guard's 65-foot (20 m) harbor tugboat Capstan (WYTL 65601) and its crew were based nearby; their duties include icebreaking and responding to water rescues.

 The Capstan was considerably farther downriver on another

search-and-rescue mission. Emergency ground response was greatly hampered by ice-covered roads and gridlocked traffic. Ambulances attempting to reach the scene were even driven down the sidewalk in front of the White House. Rescuers who reached the site were unable to assist survivors in the water because they did not have adequate equipment to reach them. Below-freezing waters and heavy ice made swimming out to them all but impossible. Multiple attempts to throw a makeshift lifeline (made out of belts and any other things available that could be tied together) out to the survivors proved ineffective. The rescue attempts by emergency officials and witnesses were recorded and broadcast live by area news reporters

 Roger Olian, a sheetmetal foreman at St. Elizabeths, a Washington psychiatric hospital,

was on his way home across the 14th Street Bridge in his truck when he heard a man yelling that there was an aircraft in the water. He was the first to jump into the water to attempt to reach the survivors. At the same time, several military personnel from the Pentagon - Steve Raynes, Aldo De La Cruz and Steve Bell - ran down to the water's edge to help Olian.

 He only traveled a few yards and came back, ice sticking to his

body. We asked him to not try again, but he insisted. Someone grabbed some short rope and battery cables and he went out again, maybe only going 30 feet. We pulled him back. Someone had backed up their jeep and we picked him up and put him in there. All anyone could do was tell the survivors was to hold on not to give up hope. There were a few pieces of the plane on shore that were smoldering and you could hear the screams of the survivors. More people arrived near the shore from the bridge but nobody could do anything. The ice was broken up and there was no way to walk out there. It was so eerie, an entire plane vanished except for a tail section, the survivors and a few pieces of plane debris. The smell of jet fuel was everywhere and you could smell it on your clothes. The snow on the banks was easily two feet high and your legs and feet would fall deep into it every time you moved from the water.

 this point, flight controllers were aware only that the plane

had disappeared from radar and did not respond to radio calls, but had no idea of either what had happened or the plane's location. At approximately 4:20 p.m. EST, Eagle 1, a United States Park Police Bell 206L-1 Long Ranger helicopter (registry number N22PP) based at the "Eagles Nest" at Anacostia Park in Washington, and manned by pilot Donald W. Usher and paramedic Melvin E. Windsor, arrived and began attempting to airlift the survivors to shore. At great risk to themselves, the crew worked close to the water's surface, at one time coming so close to the ice-clogged river that the helicopter's skids went beneath the surface of the water.

The helicopter crew lowered a line to survivors to tow them to shore. First to receive the line was Bert Hamilton, who was treading water about ten feet from the plane's floating tail. The pilot moved him across the ice while avoiding the sides of the bridge. By then some fire/rescue personnel had arrived, but military personnel and civilians were key in pulling the survivors from the shore up to waiting ambulances. The helicopter returned to the aircraft's tail, and this time Arland D. Williams Jr. (sometimes referred to as "the sixth passenger") caught the line. Instead of wrapping it around himself, however, he passed it to flight attendant Kelly Duncan. On its third trip back to the wreckage, the helicopter lowered two lifelines, fearing that the remaining survivors had only a few minutes before succumbing to hypothermia. Williams again caught one of the lines, and again passed it on, this time to Joe Stiley, the most severely injured survivor. Stiley slipped the line around his waist and grabbed Priscilla Tirado, who was hysterical, having lost her husband and baby. Patricia Felch took the second line. Before it reached the shore, both Tirado and Patricia Felch lost their grip and fell back into the water.

Priscilla Tirado was too weak to grab the line when the helicopter dropped the line to her again. A watching bystander, Congressional Budget Office assistant Lenny Skutnik, stripped off his coat and boots, and in short sleeves, dove into the icy water and swam out to assist her. The helicopter then proceeded to where Patricia Felch had fallen, and paramedic Gene Windsor dropped from the safety of the helicopter into the water to attach a line to her. By the time the helicopter crew could return for Williams, both he and the plane's tail section had disappeared beneath the icy surface. He had been in the water for twenty-nine minutes. His body and those of the other occupants were later recovered. According to the coroner, Williams was the only passenger to die by drowning. As the response of emergency crews to the scene was frustrated by the traffic on surface streets, a half hour after the plane crashed, the Washington Metro suffered its first fatal subway crash. This meant that Washington's nearest airport, one of its main bridges in or out of the city and one of its busiest subway lines were all closed simultaneously, paralyzing the entire metropolitan area

HONORING HEROISM
The "sixth passenger," who had survived the crash

and had repeatedly given up the rescue lines to other survivors before drowning, was later identified as 46year-old bank examiner Arland D. Williams Jr. The repaired span of the 14th Street Bridge complex over the Potomac River at the crash site, which had been named the Rochambeau Bridge, was renamed the "Arland D. Williams Jr. Memorial Bridge" in his honor. The Citadel in South Carolina, from which he graduated in 1957, has several memorials to him. In 2003, the new Arland D. Williams Jr. Elementary School was dedicated in his hometown of Mattoon in Coles County, Illinois.

 The investigation following the crash,

especially regarding the failure of the pilot to respond to crew concerns about the deicing procedure, led to a number of reforms in pilot training regulations. It became a widely used case study for both air crews and rescue workers.[12] Another result of the accident was the development of an improved rescue harness for use in helicopter recoveries

CONCLUSION
The air crash was because of pilots failure.

The pilot didnt respond to crew concerns about the deicing procedure Even after detecting a power problem while taxiing & visually identifying ice & snow buildup on the wings. It was the fault of pilot who didnt even notice that there was a problem, otherwise the crash would not happen.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
WWW.GOOGLE.COM FROM WIKIPEDIA THE FREE ENCYCLOPEDIA FROM MODULES

CONCLUSION
I THANK MRS SANGEETA NAIR, BECAUSE WE HAVE LEARNT A LOT OF THINGS FROM THIS ASSIGNMENT