Chapter Four:

Bandpass Modulation
What is bandpass modulation?
Baseband modulation
The form of shaped pulses
Bandpass modulation
The shaped pulses modulate a sinusoid, called a carrier
wave or a carrier
Types
Phase shift keying
Frequency shift keying
Amplitude shift keying
Continuous phase modulation
Hybrid
Why using a carrier?
The carrier converts to an electromagnetic field for
propagation through antennas
The size of the antenna depends on the wavelength
Ex: Cellular telephone, antenna size /4
cm
MHz f
miles m
m
Hz f
s m c
f
c
8
4
10 900 / 10 0 . 3
be might size antenna The
, 900 carrier a With
15 10 5 . 2
4
be might size antenna The
10
3000
10 0 . 3
, 3000 signal Baseband
/ 10 0 . 3 , Wavelength
6 8
4
5
8
8
~

=
~ =
=

=
=
= =

Sinusoidal Waveforms
The general form of the carrier wave
) ( cos ) ( ) ( t t A t s u =
Time-varying amplitude Time-varying angle
| | ) ( cos ) ( ) (
0
t t t A t s | e + =
Radian frequency 2f
Phase
Coherent vs. non-coherent
With/without the knowledge of the carriers phase to detect the signals
Complexity vs. performance
Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
| |
M
i
t
M i T t t t
T
E
t s
i
i i
t
|
| e
2
) (
,... 2 , 1 , 0 , ) ( cos
2
) (
0
=
= s s + =
duration symbol : energy symbol : T E
Waveform Vector
s
2
s
1
M=2
T T T
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
| | M i T t t
T
E
t s
i i
,... 2 , 1 , 0 , cos
2
) ( = s s + = | e
duration symbol : energy symbol : T E
Waveform Vector
s
2
s
1
M=3
s
3
T T T
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
Orthogonal signals in FSK
Not all FSK signaling is orthogonal
Example: f1=10000Hz, f2=11000Hz, are they
orthogonal??
To meeting the criterion the spacing between
the tones [on page 202, example 4.3]
A frequency separation is a multiple of 1/T Hz
The minimum requirement spacing for noncoherent
detection is 1/T
The minimum requirement spacing for coherent
detection is 1/(2T)
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
( ) M i T t t
T
t E
t s
i
i
,... 2 , 1 , 0 , cos
) ( 2
) (
0
= s s + = | e
Waveform Vector
Binary ASK (On-Off Keying)
s
2
s
1
M=2
T T T
Hybrid -- Amplitude Phase Keying
( ) M i T t t t
T
t E
t s
i
i
i
,... 2 , 1 , 0 , ) ( cos
) ( 2
) (
0
= s s + = | e
Waveform Vector
T
T
T
M=8
Where are we?!
Format Pulse modulation Bandpass modulation
Format
Demodulation, sampling and detection
Correlation Receiver
M i T t t n t s t r
i
... 2 , 1 , 0 ) ( ) ( ) ( = s s + =
Receiver:

Step 1: reduce r(t) to a single random variable z(T) or a set of RVs z
i
(T)

Step 2: a symbol decision is made
on the basis of comparing z(T) to a threshold or choosing the max z
i
(T)
Frequency Down-
conversion
Receiving
filter
Sampling at T
Equalizing
filter
Detection
Coherent Detection Binary Case
Use a single correlator
Use two correlators
Coherent Detection Decision
0
2 1
2
0
2
0
2
2
0
1
0
1
2
) (
2
1
exp
2
1
) | (
2
1
exp
2
1
) | (

o
t o
o
t o
=
+
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|

=
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|

=
>
<
a a
T z
a z
s z p
a z
s z p
Conditional
probability functions
o
0
2
:

Noise variance
o
0
: standard deviation
Coherent Detection PSK
Review
The information is contained in the instantaneous
phase of the modulated carrier
For a binary PSK: 0 and 180 are used
In fact, PSK can be views as ASK signal with the
bipolar carrier amplitudes
The ideal detector requires perfect knowledge of
the un-modulated carrier phase at the receiver
Coherent Detection
Binary PSK (BPSK)
( )
( ) ( ) T t t
T
E
t
T
E
t s
T t t
T
E
t s
s s + = + + =
s s + =
0 , cos
2
cos
2
) (
0 , cos
2
) (
0 0 2
0 1
| e t | e
| e
( )
) ( ) ( ) ( & ) ( ) ( ) (
cos
2
) ( : function basis a Assuming
1 1 21 2 1 1 11 1
0 1
t E t a t s t E t a t s
t
T
t
+ = + = + = + =
= + e
( )
{ } { }
{ } { } E dt t t n t E E s z E
E dt t t n t E E s z E
t
T
t
T
T
= + + + =
= + + + =
= +
}
}
0
1
2
1 1 2
0
1
2
1 1 1
0 1
) ( ) ( ) ( |
) ( ) ( ) ( |
cos
2
) ( reference with the z(T) of value expected The e
Take notes
Coherent Detection
Sampled Matched Filter
Nyquist rate
Sampling time needs to
be equal to or less than the symbol time
Shift to the register
Pay attention!
| | ) 3 ( ) 1 ( ) ( n s n N s n c
i i i
= =
{ }

=
=
=
1
0
1
0
) ( ) ( ) (
) ( ) ( ) (
K
n
i i i
N
n
i i
n c n k s k z E
n c n k r k z
Coherent Detection
Difference between MF and Correlators
If the timing of the MF and correlators are aligned, their
outputs at the end of symbol time are identical
MF: A new output value is available in response to each new input
sample; Equated to several correlators operating at different starting
points of the input time series
Correlators: Computes an output once per symbol time
Timing errors in the correlator badly degraded
performance

Example:
Consider the waveform set s
1
(t)=At and s
2
(t)=-At,
t=[0,T] where k=0,1,2,3. Illustrate how a sampled
matched filter can be used to detect a received signal
from this sawtooth waveform set in the absence of
noise.
Coherent Detection
Multiple Phase-Shift Keying
|
.
|

\
|
=
M
i
t
T
E
t s
i
t
e
2
cos
2
) (
0
) (
2
sin ) (
2
cos
) ( ) ( ) (
sin
2
) ( & cos
2
) ( : Choose
2 1
2 2 1 1
0 2 0 1
t
M
i
E t
M
i
E
t a t a t s
t
T
t t
T
t
i i i
+
|
.
|

\
|
+ +
|
.
|

\
|
=
+ + + =
= + = +
t t
e e
Coherent Detection Multiple PSK
Inphase component
Quadrature component
Noise estimate of the transmitted |
Probability of Bit Error
for Coherently Detected BPSK
Detection rule:
otherwise ) (
0
2
if ) (
2
2 1
0 1
t s
a a
z(T) t s =
+
= >
Two types of errors:
}
}

=
=
0
0
) | ( ) | (
) | ( ) | (
2 2
1 1
r
r
dz s z p s e P
dz s z p s e P
Probability of Bit Error
for Coherently Detected BPSK
) ( ) | ( ) ( ) | (
2 2 1 1
s P s e P s P s e P P
B
+ =
A priori probability (equally likely)
( )
( )
dz
a z
dz s z p s e P s e P P
a a r
a a r
B
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
= = =
}
}

+ =

+ =
2
0
2
2 /
0
2 /
2 2 1
2
1
exp
2
1
) | ( ) | ( ) | (
2 1 0
2 1 0
o
t o
( ) |
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
=
}
=
=
0 0
2 1
2
2 /
0 2
2
2 2
exp
2
1
/ ) (
0 2 1
N
E
Q
a a
Q du
u
P
a z u Let
b
u
a a u
B
o
t
o
o
Q function: complementary error function/co-error function
The standard deviation of the noise
2 / variance noise the :
0
2
0
N o
Probability of Bit Error
for Binary Coherent Signals
In general, the BER becomes
vectors signal between angle the :
signals o between tw t coefficien n correlatio - cross time The cos
) 1 (
2
exp
2
1
0
/ ) 1 (
2
0
u
u

t

=
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
}

N
E
Q du
u
P
b
N E
B
b
Binary PSK: 1 = = t u
Binary FSK: 0 2 / = = t u
OOK:
0 2 / = = t u
Example:
Find the expected number of bit errors made in one day for a
BPSK system with a bit rate of 5000 bps. The received
waveforms and are
coherently detected with a matched filter. The value
of A is 1mV. Assume that the single-sided noise
power spectral density is
and that signal power and energy per bit are
normalized relative to 1 ohm load.
t A t s
0 1
cos ) ( e = t A t s
0 2
cos ) ( e =
Hz w N / 10
11
0

=
Special Case Detection
Case 1: signal energy is different

Case 2: the decision threshold is not at the middle point
} }


+ =
0
0
) | (
2
1
) | (
2
1
2 1
r
r
B
dz s z p dz s z p P
Example
NonCoherent Detection
Differential PSK (DPSK)
The procedure of encoding the data differentially
No attempt is made to determine the actual value of the
phase of the incoming signal
| |
| | ) ( ) ( cos
2
) (
... 2 , 1 , 0 , ) ( cos
2
) (
t n t t
T
E
t r
M i T t t t
T
E
t s
i o
i o i
+ + + =
= s s + =
o u e
u e
Typically assumed as a random variable uniformly distributed between zero and 2t
NonCoherent Detection cont.
Detection of Differential PSK (DPSK)
Matched filters are not possible less efficient
The carrier phase of the previous signaling interval can be
used as a phase reference
The detector calculates the coordinate of the incoming
signal by correlating it with locally generated waveforms
The detector then measures the angle between the currently
received signal vector and the previously received signal
vector

NonCoherent Detection Binary DPSK
addition 2 - modulo :
) ( ) 1 ( ) (
) ( ) 1 ( ) (

=
=
k m k c k c
k m k c k c
Read your textbook
0111011011
01110110111
NonCoherent Detection Binary DPSK
Optimal: requires a reference carrier in frequency
but not necessarily in phase with the received carrier
Complex envelope: inphase component and quadrature component of the carrier wave
| || | { }
t t y t t x
t j t t jy t x t s
e e
e e
sin ) ( cos ) (
) sin cos ) ( ) ( Re ) (
=
+ + =
Example
The bit stream 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 is to be transmitted
using DPSK modulation. Show the encoded message
(first bit is 1) and the detected message.
addition 2 - modulo :
) ( ) 1 ( ) (
) ( ) 1 ( ) (

=
=
k m k c k c
k m k c k c
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1
1
1
0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0
1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0
Example
When cables are installed in a building, it is not
unusual for the engineers to get the connections of the
twisted pair reversed. How can a binary signaling
scheme be designed to cope with this eventuality and
maintain correct polarity data transfer?

Probability of Bit Error
for Binary DPSK
The decision is based on the phase difference
between successively received signals
( )
( ) T t t
T
E
t x
T t t
T
E
t x
s s + =
s s + =
0 cos
2
) (
0 cos
2
) (
0 2
0 1
t | e
| e
T t x x or x x t s
T t x x or x x t s
2 0 ) , ( ) , ( ) (
2 0 ) , ( ) , ( ) (
1 2 2 1 2
2 2 1 1 1
s s =
s s =
Probability of Bit Error
for Binary DPSK
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
0
exp
2
1
N
E
P
b
B
Example
A DPSK transmitter can generate an average power
of 1 nW at the input to a receiver which has a noise
power density of 0.5 10
-12
Watts/Hz. If the symbol
rate is 100 symbols per second, what is the BER
performance for a DPSK decoder in the receiver?
Let us work on bandwidth again
A binary PSK modem is designed to work within a
bandwidth of 8 kHz. What is the maximum data rate
that can be delivered if a raised cosine filter with
a = 1 is used?

Answer: 4kHz
FSK Generation
FSK
The information contained in the frequency of the carrier



Insensitive to amplitude fluctuations in the channel
Generating FSK signals
Switching between distinct frequency sources
Voltage Controlled Oscillator
Quadrature Modulator
| | M i T t t
T
E
t s
i i
,... 2 , 1 , 0 , cos
2
) ( = s s + = | e
FSK Generation
Switching between distinct frequency sources

FSK Generation
Voltage Controlled Oscillator
FSK Generation
Quadrature (Vector) Modulator
Symbol 1: e
c
+ e

Symbol 1: e
c
- e


Summing appropriate amount of an in-phase and quadrature version of the carrier signal
t
c
e cos t
c
e sin
Coherent FSK Detection
Decision: if the output from the mark filter is larger than that from the space filter, a
decision is made that a mark signal was transmitted.

A matched filter demodulator is optimum because its filters are matched to the
transmitted signal so that their response to the desired signal is maximized with
respect to their noise response.
NonCoherent Detection of FSK
Pass the signal through two bandpass filters turned to the two signal frequencies

Data can be recovered using an envelope detector [diode + smoothing filter]

Detect which has the larger output averaged over a symbol period
NonCoherent Detection of FSK
Phase-locked loop:
A voltage controlled oscillator: output frequency is proportional to the input voltage
A phase detector: produce a voltage output proportional to the phase difference
A loop filter: control the dynamics of the feedback circuit
Advantages/Disadvantages of FSK
Advantages
A constant envelope modulation insensitive to
amplitude variation in the channel compatible with non-
linear transceivers
Detection is based on relative frequency changes does
not require absolute frequency accuracy in the channel
Disadvantages
Less bandwidth efficiency
BER performance is worth than of PSK
Probability of Error
Example
What is the bit error probability for non-coherent
binary FSK for an Eb/N0 value of 10 dB? What
approximate Eb/N0 is required to achieve the same
BER performance of coherent FSK and PSK?
Example: page 240, 4.17
Consider that a BFSK domodulator/detector has s
synchronization error consisting of a time bias pT, where p is a
fraction of the symbol time T. In other words, the detection of
a symbol starts early (late) and concludes early (late) by an
amount pT. Assume equally likely signaling and perfect
frequency and phase synchronization.
Find the general expression for bit-error probability as a function of p.
If the received SNR is 9.6 dB and p=0.2, compute the value of
degraded BER due to the timing bias.
If one did not compensate for the timing bias in this example, how
much additional SNR must be provided in order to restore the BER that
exists when p=0.
Amplitude Shift Keying [not from the textbook]
ASK
The information contained in the amplitude of the carrier



On-off Keying: the simplest form of bandpass data
modulation


| | M i T t t
T
E
t s
i
i
,... 2 , 1 , 0 , cos
2
) ( = s s + = | e
ASK Generation
Linear modulator: an ASK signal can be realized
using a mixer to multiply the carrier with the
baseband symbol stream
ASK Generation
Switch
Binary ASK: switch to gate the carrier on and off, driven by the data
signal.
M-ary signals: with differing amplitudes to represent the required
number of symbol states
Non-linear process
ASK Generation
Bandpass filtering method
Filter is needed after modulation
A high frequency modulated data signal can be eliminated
ASK Generation
Baseband filtering method
Using the mixer-based approach the baseband data stream
can be pre-filtered using a low pass (root raised cosine)
filter
Non-Coherent Detection
Envelope detection: the information is conveyed in
the amplitude or envelope of the modulated carrier
signal
A diode rectifier and smoothing filter

Coherent Detection
By mixing the incoming data signal with a locally
generated carrier reference and selecting the
difference component from the mixer output.
Coherent vs. Non-Coherent
Phase or vector representation diagram





Case study: off state with noise
Non-coherent: envelope detection N
Coherent: N/2
Carrier Recovery
Method 1: send a reference signal along with the
data signal
Method 2: recover the carrier from the modulated
data signal
Phase-locked loop (PLL)
By locking an oscillator to the phase of
the incoming carrier when a carrier-on
symbol is sent, and holding this
oscillator phase when the carrier is off,
it is possible to produce the required
coherent reference.
Matched Filter
Matched filter
Baseband transmission
For optimizing the signal to noise ratio at the output of a
data receiver was discussed.
Assumption: if the coherent detection is used

A matched filter pair such as the
root raised cosine filters can thus
be used to shape the source and
received baseband data symbols
in ASK
Timing Recovery
Early-late gate synchronizer
The optimized filters are used Matched filter for
instance
One with a slightly advanced timing
reference
One with a slightly retarded timing
reference
Comparator: periodically compared
to see which is the larger
The optimum timing signal is
passed to a third data detector.
Example
A coherent ASK demodulator has a 5
o
error in its
locally generated carrier reference. What will be the
degradation in noise power immunity compared with
an ideal demodulator?
M-ary Bandpass Modulation*
Common knowledge
In principle, we can use any number of symbols for
converting digital information.
A practical limit on the number of states to be used: the
ability of receiving equipment to accurately resolve the
individual states
A practical limit on the number of states to be used: the
levels of noise and distortion introduced by the cannel and
by the Tx and Rx units
Example: telephone modem 1024 symbol states vs. cellular
systems two or four states
M-ary Bandpass Modulation
M-ary signaling review
The processor considers k bits at a time
The modulator produce one of M=2
k
waveforms
Does M-ary signaling improve the system
performance?
Error performance
Bandwidth performance

M-ary ASK
Implementation of M-ary ASK
Extension of binary ASK
Mixer at TX: to multiply the carrier with the baseband signal
Coherent detection
Mixer at RX: to multiply the received signal with a locally generated carrier reference
Filter: to select the DC value
M-ary ASK
Performance
No opportunity to exploit orthogonally BER
performance +
Sensitivity to amplitude change
Need for reasonable linearity

Constellation diagram*
A representation of a signal modulated by a digital
modulation scheme
To display the signal as a two-dimensional scatter
diagram in the complex
Represents the possible symbols that may be selected
by a given modulation

M-ary FSK
Increasing the noise immunity to achieve reliable
date transmission
Possibility of using both orthogonal symbols or non-
orthogonal symbols
Example: an orthogonal 8-ary FSK set with a symbol rate
of 1200 symbols/sec for coherent detection 1000Hz,
1600Hz, 2200Hz, 2800Hz, 3400Hz, 4000Hz, 4600Hz, and
5200Hz (same staring phase)
M-ary FSK
Performance
M | BER performance | [cost: bandwidth]
M-ary PSK: Quadrature PSK
PSK modulation scheme with four phase states
0, 90, 180, and 270
Twice the speed of BPSK in the same bandwidth
Modulator
Half the rate of the input data

Shape the data pulses in each channel
Continue
M-ary PSK: Quadrature PSK
M-ary PSK: Quadrature PSK
Demodulator
M-ary PSK: Quadrature PSK
BER performance
Theoretical identical to that for BPSK
Differential QPSK
Detection
t/4 QPSK
Widely used in the majority of digital radio modems
Two identical constellations which are rotated by
45 ( / 4 radians) with respect to one another
reduces the phase-shifts from a maximum of 180,
but only to a maximum of 135 the filtered
QPSK signal never passes through zero
Offset QPSK
Staggering the input data streams to the two
quadrature BPSK modulators by half of symbol
period

Symbol Error Performance
How about bit error probability? [Less]

How about bandwidth efficiency?
Probability of Symbol Error
Equally-likely coherently detected M-ary PSK




Differentially coherent detection of M-ary DPSK
( ) symbol per energy : log
sin
2
2 ) (
2
0
M E E
M N
E
Q M P
b s
s
E
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
~
t
|
|
.
|

\
|
~
M
N
E
Q M P
s
E
2
sin
2
2 ) (
0
t
Probability of Symbol Error
Equally likely coherently detected M-ary orthogonal
FSK


Equally likely noncoherently detected M-ary
orthogonal FSK
|
|
.
|

\
|
s
0
) 1 ( ) (
N
E
Q M M P
s
E
|
|
.
|

\
|

<

=
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|
=

=
0
0
2
0
2
exp
2
1
) (
)! ( !
!
exp ) 1 ( exp
1
) (
N
E M
M P
j M j
M
j
M
jN
E
j
M
N
E
M
M P
s
E
s
M
j
j s
E
Bit Error Rate vs. Symbol Error Rate
For orthogonal signals



For multiple phase signals

1
2 /
1 2
2
1

=

M
M
P
P
k
k
E
B
M
P
P
E
B
2
log
~
Example: page 240, 4.12
Consider a 16-ary PSK system with symbol error
probability 10
-5
. A Gray code (binary) is used for the
symbol to bit assignment. What is the approximate
bit error probability?
For a 16-ary orthogonal FSK system.
( )
6 5
4
3 1
6
5
10 3 . 5 10
1 2
2
1 2
2
10 5 . 2
4
10

=
= = ~
E
k
k
B
E
B
P P
k
P
P
Gray code
A binary numbering system
two successive values differ in only one digit
Example: 00 01 11 10
Example: 000 001 011 010 110 111 101 100
Applications
Sensor: angle detection
Digital communication: error detection