Electronics

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Electronics
Electrons Distribution in Orbit is 2n Square where n is th orbit 1st Orbit = Max 2 Electrons 2nd Orbit = Max 8 Electrons & so on The Conductivity Depends on Number of Electrons in Outer Orbit Distance of Outer Orbit from Nucleus Density of Atoms within Element

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Electronics
The Stable outer orbit is one which meets 2n square criteria If outer orbit is not stable a atom keeps borrowing electrons from a neighbor & this how electricity is said to be flowing or a current is passing Electrons flow from a atom with excess electron to a one with defficiency. Lesser the number of Electrons, Higher Distance from Nucleus & High Atom Density makes Good Conductors Ex. Copper (Cu), Aluminium (Al) Etc.

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Electronics
Elements Like Silicon (Si), Germanium (Ge) are doped with Elements like Arsenic, Antimony, Indium etc. to make semiconductors Doping Impurities as above makes atoms to form Structure called Lattice with Either Free Electron or Less Electron (Hole) in some Molecules Semiconductors with Excess Electrons are called N Type & with Holes are called P Types Junction of P & N type Materials makes Diode

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Electronics
Diode Symbol is

N
Triode or Transistor has two junctions instead of one like in diode
C (collector) Base E (emitter)

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Electronics P N GATE

Silicon Rectifiers known commonly as SCRs SCRs has Gate which when applied designed voltage cuts off Diode from conducting Diodes & Transistors has ability to Amplify input signals

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Electronics

Other Electronic Components Capacitors Resistors Zener Diodes Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) 7 Segment LEDs etc.

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Electronics
Types of Circuits

Analog The inputs & outputs are proportional to Signals like Voltage, Current, Frequency etc.

Digital Uses Binary Mathematics concept of either 0 or 1 I.e. either on or off

Digital Circuits are called Logical Circuits

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Electronics

Binary Number System Think of Decimal Odometer of a Car, its read

Thousands Hundreds
0 0

Tens
0

Units
0

0000 , after 1 Km 0001, after 1 more Km 0002 0009

at 10th Km units wheel turns back from 9 to 0 & tens wheel to 1 I.e. 0010. This is called Reset & Carry.
Think of Binary Odometer a device which has only two Digits 0 or 1

0000 , after 1 Km 0001, after 2 Km 0010, after 0011 .. 1111

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Electronics
Binary Number System Thus Decimal 0001 Decimal 0002 0003 xxxx 0015 Binary 0001 Binary 0010 0011 xxxx 1111

Thus 4 Digit Decimal can be converted to Binary Equivalent The Mathematics of Binary Numbers is known as Boolean Algebra

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Electronics

0 is Equivalent to either On or Off

1 is Equivalent to either On or Off

Transistors Can be used as switches because of there Conducting or Non Conducting depending on Saturation Current Designed, thus , can symbolized as 0 or 1

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Electronics
V cc +5v RC 1k

RB 10k V in
0 or +5v

V out

Transistor Invertor Circuit

When V in Is 0 V Output (V out) is +5V When V in Is +5 V Output is 0V Thus Circuit Inverts Input

V in Inverter Symbol

V out

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Electronics

V out

Y
B RL

A & B Are Inputs

Two Input OR Gate

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Electronics
V cc RL A

V out

Y
B

A & B Are Inputs

Two Input AND Gate

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Electronics
An OR Gate has two or more input signals but only one output If all inputs are 0 the Output is 0, If any or all inputs are 1 the Output is 1 An AND Gate has a High or 1 Output only when all inputs are High or 1

The Gates are thus Logical Circuits made of Diodes

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Electronics

Three Input OR Gate

Four Inputs AND Gate Cummins Diesel Sales & Service (I) Ltd.

Electronics

Other Types of Gates NOR Gates Bubbled AND Gates NAND Gates Bubbled OR Gates

The Combination of Various kind of Gates on single Silicon Chip are ICs The Circuits or ICs are so designed to use Boolean Algebra and provide desired output

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Electronics

Data Processing Circuits

Multiplexers - Circuit with many inputs & only one output Each input can treated as BIT Byte is a binary number with 8 Bits

Demultiplexers - Means one input into many outputs

Decoders - Circuits used for conversion of Binary Number

to Decimal Number

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Electronics
Encoder - Circuits which convert input signal to Binary coded Number ROM - Read only Memory are ICs that can store Binary Numbers

PROM - A programmable Read only Memory

EPROM - A Erasable Programmable Read only Memory Binary Number Locations in ROMs are called Addresses

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Electronics

Full Adders - A Logic Circuit with three inputs & 2 ouputs

Half Adder - Circuit with two inputs & two outputs

Adder Circuits are used for Additions & Subtractions. Multiplication & Divisions Too are Performed with Adders

Shift Registers

Shift Counters

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Electronics
The Design Factors of ICs consider properties like Power Dissipation Propagation Delay Time (Frequency of Circuit) Temperature Range for Operation The standard ICs normally are designed for +5 Volts with some margins for errors The external factors like other Electro Magnetic Fields can induce signals known as Noise. The ICs has designed Noise Immunity capability

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Electronics

The CMOS (Complimentary Metal Oxide Semiconductors) chips are used to work at 3 to 15 Volts

Flip-Flop are electronic circuits which has two stable states

System Clocks uses Flip-Flop Circuits System Clocks are essential to control ICs operations or Cycles of Operations

Analog to Digital Converters (A / D) & (D / A)

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Electronics

Some Digital Circuit Equipments are Calculators Computers Digital Temperature Meters Digital Frequency Meters

Electronic Clocks
Digital Cameras Etc.

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Electronics

Some Digital Circuit Equipments used by us are EFC Control Boxes ECPs LCC Governors CENTRY Governing Systems

CELECT
CENSE Engine Safety Systems Power Command Controls

Etc..

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Electronics
Example of a ROM Circuit
A B C

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Y 3 Inputs = A B C Outputs = Y3 Y2 Y1 Y0

Y 2

Y 1

Y 0

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Electronics
Address 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Nibble 0111 1000 1011 1100 0110 1001 0011 1110

This is 8 X 4 RAM, I.e. Can Store 8 Words of 4 Bits Each 8 Bits Equals 1 Byte, Thus this is 4 Byte RAM This is 8 Row , Single Column RAM, Thus has 8 Memory Cells Each Cell Consist of OR Gates, AND Gates,Diode Etc. Each Cell Thus can be Addressed by a Row Number & Column Number

Address can be written either in Binary Form or Hexadecimal Form Desk Top PCs has RAM Like 16MB, 32MB. 64MB. Cells Normally are arranged in Square Array of M Rows N Columns (M X N)

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Electronics

ASCII Characters American Standard Code for Information Exchange Used to Get into & out of Digital Circuits Like Computers, Calculators Etc. Code is Used by most Designers as a Common Standard for Compatibility Code is Alphanumeric in Nature I.e. Comprises Letters, Numbers, Symbols Code is 7 Bit in Form of X6X5X4X 3X2X 1X0

For Ex.Letter A Equals 100 0001, Letter a Equals 110 0001

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Electronics
Look At How Digital Circuit Technology is Used by Engines

What Logic Generating Set Engine Governing Requires

Set Low Idle with Pre Set Facility Set Rated Speed, Pre Selected Set High Idle, Pre Selected Change RPMs as Desired by Operator Increase Fuel or Open Throttle as Per Increase or Decrease in Load

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Electronics
Thus The EFC is Designed Look at Type of Electrical Components used For EFCs

Component Toggle Switch For LI & HI Potentio Meter Magnetic Pick Up EFC Controller Actuator

Signal Type Analog Analog Analog Digital A Analog

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Electronics
Thus EFC Controller Would Consist of Circuitry A/ D Convertors for Analog Inputs to Digital IC with Logic to Provide Output which will be Input to Actuator D / A Convertor for Providing Analog Signal to Actuator System Clock to Regulate Logical Circuits

Potentiometers for Pre Sets, Droop Setting

Etc..

The Working Logic is Simple Open Actuator with Reference to Pre Sets as per change in Magnetic Pick Up Input Signal. Magnetic Pick Up Signal is proportional to Increase or Decrease in Engine RPM because of Change in Load

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Electronics
Similarly Typical Safety System Like CENSE will work as below Analog Inputs from Various Sensors Like LOP, HWT, Intake Temperature, Turbo Boost Pressure, Low Coolant Level Etc. Data Links for Input / Output Communications within Components Control Box with Analog to Digital Converters & Vice Versa Memory for Storing Preset Values like Cut Off Oil Pressure, Coolant Temperature, Intake Temperature Etc. Logical Circuit for Comparing Input & Provide Output in Relation to Pre Stored Values Display Lamps to Read Fault Codes Etc.

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Electronics
The Systems Like CELECT has more Comprehensive Circuits Performs Numerous Logical Operations Like Derating Engine Shutting Engine Governing RPMs

Provide Multiple Torque Curves

Electronically Controlled Injection The System Typically has RAM, PROM (Programmable Memory) Thus Capable of Pre Calibration as per Application Needs, Store Operating Data, Provide Data at Latter Stage for Trouble Shooting, Flash Fault Codes in Case of Problems

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Electronics
The Electronic Circuits are normally Reliable

However Typical Problems Can be

Component Failures because of Wrong Polarity Connections Voltage Inputs Either Low or High than Designed for Surges Like because of Welding on Equipment Electrical Noise I.e. Interference because of Induction from Other Electrical Equipments On Board Loose Harness / Connections Bouncing Contacts Like of Ignition Switch Open or Short Circuited Sensors Etc..

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Electronics
The Digital Circuits Like Remote Monitoring ECPs Requires Soft Ware for Both Programming & Communication Called Drivers

For Communications Between More Than One Electronic Equipments Various Data Transmission Systems are used -

Through Parallel Ports

Through Serial Ports Standard Data Links Like J 232 (SAE Standards) Bit by Bit Data Transmission Sequence Etc...

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Electronics Increase Your Knowledge

Read

Digital Principles & Applications by Malvino & Leach

Modern Digital Electronics by Jain Digital Computer Electronics by Malvino

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Electronics

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