SURFACE TEXTURE Repetitive or random deviations from the nominal surface which forms the pattern on the surface.

Surface texture includes Roughness, Waviness, Lays and flaws. Factors affecting surface roughness: 1. Vibration 2. Material of the work piece 3. Type of machining 4. Rigidity of the system 5. Type, form, material and sharpness of cutting tool 6. Cutting condition i.e. speed, feed, depth of cut 7. Type of coolant used Reasons for controlling surface texture: 1. To improve service life of the components. 2. To reduce initial wear of parts. 3. To improve fatigue resistance 4. To reduce frictional wear 5. For good appearance

Irregularities or defects on machine surface: These can be classified into four categories. 1. First Order (Caused due to inaccuracy in machine tools) Irregularities caused due to lack of straightness of guide ways on which the tool moves. Irregularities arising due to deformation of work under the action of cutting forces Due to the weight of the material itself. 2. Second order: Irregularities caused due to vibration of any kind 3. Third order: Irregularities caused by machining itself Due to the characteristics of the process like feed Marks of the cutting tool. 4. Fourth order: Irregularities arising from the rupture of the material during the separation of the chips.

Irregularities on surface can also be grouped into following two categories. 1. PRIMARY TEXTURE (ROUGHNESS/ MICRO GEOMETRICAL) The surface irregularities of small wavelength are called primary texture and caused by direct action of cutting elements on the material i.e. cutting tool shape, tool feed rate and other disturbances like friction, wear or corrosion. It includes irregularities of third and fourth order. 2. SECONDARY TEXTURE (WAVINESS/ MACRO GEOMETRICAL) The surface irregularities of considerable wavelength of a periodic character are called secondary texture. These result due to inaccuracies of slides, wear of guides, misalignment of centers, nonlinear feed motion, deformation of work under the action of cutting forces, vibration of any kind etc. These include irregularities of first and second order.

Centre Line Average (C.L.A.) Method (Ra): In this method surface roughness is measured as the average deviation from the nominal surface. C.L.A. is defined as the average value of the ordinates from the mean line, regardless of the arithmetic signs of the ordinates. C.L.A. value or Ra =

R.M.S method: In this method the roughness is measured as the average deviation from the nominal surface. R.M.S value is defined as the square root of the arithmatic mean of the values of the squares of the ordinates of the surface measured from a mean line. Let, the sample length L is divided into n equal parts and h1,h2,h3..hn are the heights of the ordinates erected at those points. Then, hrms=

Ten Point Height Method (Rz): In this method the average difference between the five highest peaks and five lowest valleys of surface texture within the sampling length, measured from a line parallel to the mean line and not crossing the profile is used to denote the amount of surface roughness. So, Rz= Ten point height of irregularities

This method is relatively simple Method of analysis and measures the total depth of surface irregularities within the sample length. But, it does not provide Sufficient information about the surface as no account is taken of frequency of the irregularities and the profile shape.

Direct methods enable to determine a numerical value of the surface finish of any surface.

When the stylus is moved over the surface to be measured, the irregularities in the surface texture are measured and it is used to assess the surface finish of the work piece.

1. Skid or Shoe 2. Finely pointed Stylus or Probe 3. An amplifying device for magnifying the stylus movement and indicator 4. Recording device to produce a trace 5. Means for analyzing the trace

Advantages: The electrical signal available can be processed to obtain any desired roughness parameter or can be recorded for display or subsequent analysis. Disadvantages: 1. These instruments are bulky and complex 2. They are relatively fragile 3. Initial cost is high 4. Needs skilled operator 5. Distance between stylus and skid and shape of the skid introduce error in measurement for wavy surfaces.

Principle: The principle of Profilometer is similar to Gramophone pick up. It consist of two principal units, a tracer and an amplifier. Tracer is a finely pointed stylus it is mounted in the pickup unit which consist of an induction coil located in the field of permanent magnet. When the tracer is moved across the surface to be tested, it is displaced vertically up and down due to the surface irregularities. This causes the induction coil to move in the field of the permanent magnet and induces a voltage. The induced voltage is amplified and recorded.

Best suited for measuring surface finish of deep bores.

Measurement of Straightness
A line is said to be straight over a given length, if the variation of the distance of its points from two planes perpendicular to each other and parallel to the generation direction of the line remains within the specified tolerance limits.

The tolerance on the straightness of a line is defined as the maximum deviation in relation to the reference straight line (Mean line or Mean true line). The mean true line should be chosen such that it passes through the maximum number of points measured and the sum of the areas above it must be equal to the sum of areas bellow it. The straightness error of a line is defined as the distance e between two lines drawn parallel to the mean true line and enveloping the actual contour by passing through the highest and lowest points on the measured line.