Protein Synthesis

Marvelous Mussel Adhesive

Mussel

binds itself to rocks with threads

coated with the protein bysuss

Gene Yeast

for bysuss has been put into yeast synthesize the protein based on

the instructions in the mussel DNA

Mussels Must Stick to Surfaces

Steps from DNA to Proteins

Same two steps produce all proteins: 1) DNA is transcribed to form RNA

Occurs in the nucleus RNA moves into cytoplasm

2) RNA is translated to form polypeptide chains, which fold to form proteins

Three Classes of RNAs

Messenger

RNA RNA

Carries protein-building instruction

Ribosomal

Major component of ribosomes

Transfer

RNA

Delivers amino acids to ribosomes

A Nucleotide Subunit of RNA

uracil (base) phosphate group

sugar (ribose)

Figure 14.2 Page 228

Base Pairing during Transcription

DNA

RNA

A U

DNA

DNA

T A

base pairing in DNA replication

base pairing in transcription

Transcription Video

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WsofH466lq

Transcription & DNA Replication

Like

DNA replication DNA replication

Nucleotides added in 5 to 3 direction

Unlike

Only small stretch is template RNA polymerase catalyzes nucleotide addition Product is a single strand of RNA

Promoter
A

base sequence in the DNA that signals the start of a gene transcription to occur, RNA polymerase must first bind to a promoter

For

Gene Transcription
transcribed DNA winds up again DNA to be transcribed unwinds

mRNA transcript RNA polymerase

Figure 14.4c Page 229

Adding Nucleotides

growing RNA transcript

3 direction of transcription

Figure 14.4d Page 229

Transcript Modification
unit of transcription in a DNA strand

exon

intron

exon

intron

exon

transcription

into pre-mRNA poly-A tail 3

cap 5 snipped out snipped out

5 mature mRNA transcript

Figure 14.5 Page 229

Genetic Code
Set

of 64 base triplets specify amino acids stop translation

Codons 61

3
Figure 14.7 Page 230

tRNA Structure
codon in mRNA

anticodon

amino-acid attachment site amino acid OH

Figure 14.8 Page 231

Ribosomes
tunnel

small ribosomal subunit large ribosomal subunit

intact ribosome

Figure 14.9b,c Page 231

Three Stages of Translation

Initiation Elongation Termination

Translation Video

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1PSwhTGF

Initiation
Initiator

tRNA binds to small ribosomal subunit Small subunit/tRNA complex attaches to mRNA and moves along it to an AUG start codon Large ribosomal subunit joins complex
Fig. 14.10a-c Page 232

Binding Sites
binding site for mRNA

P (first binding site for tRNA)

A (second binding site for tRNA)

Figure 14.10d Page 232

Elongation
mRNA

passes through ribosomal subunits deliver amino acids to the ribosomal binding site in the order specified by the mRNA bonds form between the amino acids and the polypeptide chain grows

tRNAs

Peptide

Elongation

Fig. 14.10e-g Page 233

Termination
Stop

codon into place No tRNA with anticodon Release factors bind to the ribosome mRNA and polypeptide are released

mRNA

new polypeptide chain

Fig. 14.10j-k Page 233

What Happens to the New Polypeptides?

Some

just enter the cytoplasm

Many

enter the endoplasmic reticulum and move through the cytomembrane system where they are modified

Transcription

Overview

mRNA

rRNA

tRNA

Mature mRNA transcripts

ribosomal subunits

mature tRNA

Translation

Gene Mutations

Base-Pair Substitutions Insertions Deletions

Base-Pair Substitution
original base triplet in a DNA strand During replication, proofreading enzymes make a substitution possible outcomes: or original, unmutated sequence a gene mutation
Figure 14.11 Page 234

a base substitution within the triplet (red)

Frameshift Mutations
Insertion

Extra base added into gene region

Deletion

Base removed from gene region

Both

shift the reading frame in many wrong amino acids

Result

Frameshift Mutation
mRNA parental DNA arginine glycine tyrosine tryptophan asparagine amino acids

altered mRNA DNA with base insertion altered aminoacid sequence

Figure 14.12 Page 234

arginine

glycine

leucine

leucine

glutamate

Transposons
DNA

segments that move spontaneously about the genome they insert into a gene region, they usually inactivate that gene

When

Transposons and Plants

Barbara McClintock Nobel Prize 1983

Mutation Rates
Each

gene has a characteristic mutation

rate Average rate for eukaryotes is between 10-4 and 10-6 per gene per generation Only mutations that arise in germ cells can be passed on to next generation

Mutagens
Ionizing

radiation (X rays) radiation (UV)

Nonionizing Natural

and synthetic chemicals