WATER TREATMENT

water cycle1 - hydrologic cycle journey of water Raw water - surface water - impurities - suspended, dissolved and colloidal solids, bacteria, colouring and odour inducing agents and organic matter.

As of 2006, waterborne diseases are estimated to cause 1.8 million deaths each year. These deaths are attributable to inadequate public sanitation systems and it is clear that proper sewarage need to be installed.

Table 1: Contaminants and pollutants present in the domestic waste water2

S.No.

Constituent

Overall concentration in mg/L

20-82 10-20 150-320 300-900 100-300 300-1000

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Total nitrogen Total phosphorus Suspended solids Total dissolved solids BOD COD

Standards of water quality

The treatment of water depends on the factors such as quantity and quality of raw water and required standards of purified water.

Table 2: Drinking water standard Parameter Standard

Physical Parameters Colour Odour Temperature Turbidity 10 to 20 (Platinum-cobalt scale) 0 to 4 Po value 10 C to 15.6 C 5 to 10 ppm

Taste

No objectionable taste
Chemical Parameters

pH Hardness Total Solids Chlorides Iron and Manganese Dissolved oxygen Lead Arsenic sulphate BOD

6.5 to 8 7.5 to 115 ppm (CaCO3 equivalent) < 500 ppm < 200 ppm < 0.30 ppm 5 to 6 ppm 0.10 ppm 0.05 ppm < 20 ppm Nil Biological Parameters

B-coli M.P.N.(Most Probable Number)

No B-coli in 100ml One number in 100ml

Treatment Process
Wastewater treatment - collecting the wastewater in a central, segregated location and subjecting the wastewater to various treatment processes. Some Physical, Chemical and Biological Wastewater Treatment Methods

I. Physical Treatment:
Sedimentation (Clarification): To the settle the heavier solids by effluent

gravity - removing the "clarified"

Screening: process of removing the large matters from sewage - through screens

Flotation and Skimming: process of removal of floating matters such as oils, grease, etc
Filtration: Suspended solids - porous medium that is made up of paper or granular material - removal of water from sludges or slurries

Equalization:
Industrial wastewater treatment processes - undesirable wastes are sometimes produced over short periods of time - "slugs" - such wastes would damage a biological treatment process - wastes are sometimes held, mixed with other wastewaters, and gradually released, thus eliminating "shocks" to the treatment plant.

Air or steam stripping:

Process of transfer of dissolved contaminants from liquid phase into vapour steam Concentration gradient between liquid and gas phases is important. Volatile contaminants with low water solubility are removed under normal atmospheric conditions Hot or live steam is used instead of air to remove the semi-volatile contaminants in steam stripping procedures

II. Chemical Treatment

Chlorination: oxidizing chemical Cl2 + H2O H+ + Cl- + HOCl
Hypochlorous acid (HOCl) is the prime disinfecting agent

(1)

Ozonation : More effective against cysts and viruses than chlorine

Advantages - no taste or odour problems Disinfective power of ozone is limited by its relatively low solubility in water.

Neutralization:
Addition of acid or base to adjust pH levels back to neutrality.

Ca(OH)2

Ca2+ (aq) + 2OH (causing pH change)

(2)

Coagulation and flocculation:

Colloidal material that settles too slowly to be removed within in the detention time in the clarifier
Addition of a chemical that, through a chemical reaction forms an insoluble end product that serves to remove small particulates. Lime, iron containing compounds (such as ferric chloride or ferric sulfate) and alum (aluminium sulphate [Al2(SO4)3.18H2O]). [Al(H2O)6]3+ + 3HCO3 Al(OH)3(s) + 3CO2 + 6H2O (3)

Flocculation - high-molecular-weight material to attract or trap the particulates and settle down together
Starch and multiply charged ions to remove iron oxide particulates and humic organic matter

Adsorption:
Treatment by activated carbon is mostly due to adsorption or absorption. When a chemical species is adhered to the surface of a solid - adsorption. When partial chemical bonds are formed between adsorbed species or when the absorbate got into the channels of the solids - absorption. Porous material with high ratios of surface area to unit weight up to 100 acres per pound. Activated carbon -affinity to organic materials such as solvents used in printing inks and common coatings. To absorb colored organic particulates to inorganic metal ions. Water filter - ceramic elements are filled with a high grade silvered granulated activated carbon (GAC). The GAC reduces pesticides, chemicals, chlorine, tastes and odours, while leaving the naturally occurring minerals found in the water unaffected.

Chemical oxidation and reduction: Toxic chemical compound is converted into lesser toxic compounds.
Toxic organic compounds - phenols, pesticides and amines. Calcium hypochlorite, ozone and hydrogen peroxide - typical oxidising agents, Sulphur dioxide (SO2) and sodium borohydride (NaBH4) - reducing agents.

Ion Exchange: To remove hardness, iron and manganese salts in drinking water
supplies. Certain natural and synthetic materials - to exchange one of their ions. Naturally occuring minerals - aluminium silicate minerals - zeolites. Synthetic ion-exchange resins - composed of organic polymer with attached functional groups SO3 H+ (strongly acidic cation exchange resins), or COO H+ (weakly acidic cation exchange resins or -N+(CH3)3OH (strongly basic anion exchange resins) 2 Res-SO3H+ + Ca2+ (Res-SO3)2Ca2+ + 2H+ (here Res represents resin phase) (4)

Reverse Osmosis:

Figure 4: Normal and Reverse Osmosis Process: Reverse osmosis4 - pressure is applied to the region of higher concentration to force water molecules to diffuse into the region of lesser concentration across semipermeable membrane (Figure 4). Pure water is extracted from concentrated wastewater in this process. Cellulose acetate and ployamides are the common membrane materials

Electrodialysis:
Uses ion-selective membranes and an electrical potential difference to separate anions and cations in solution.

When the electrodialysis is running, the direct current field affects the flow of dissociated salt components in water solution.

CM cation exchange membrane, D diluate chamber, e1,e2 electrode chambers, AM anion exchange membrane, K concentrate chamber Figure 5: Electrodialysis (reproduced from ref.5)

Cations moving towards the cathode pass through the cation exchange membranes and cannot go through the anion exchange membranes. Anions drawn to the anode pass through the anion exchange membrane but stop at the cation exchange membranes. Using the right combination of anion exchange and cation exchange membranes we can separate the ions in the inlet solution and create a desalted flow called diluate, and concentrated flow called concentrate.

III. Biological treatment methods:

Method use microorganisms, mostly bacteria, in the biochemical decomposition of wastewaters to stable end products - carbon dioxide, water and other end products. Biological treatment - aerobic and anaerobic methods - based on availability of dissolved oxygen.

Table 3: Treatment systems used to remove the major contaminants

Contaminant Suspended solids Treatment system Screening and comminution Sedimentation Flotation Filtration Coagulation / sedimentation Land treatment Activated sludge Trickling filters Rotating biological contactors Aerated lagoons Oxidation ponds Intermittent sand filtration Land treatment Physical / Chemical Chlorination Ozonation Land treatment Classification P P P P C/P P B B B B B P/B B/C/P P/C C C P

Biodegradable organics

Pathogens

Nutrients: Nitrogen

Suspended-growth nitrification and denitrification Fixed-film nitrification and denitrification Ammonia stripping Ion exchange Breakpoint Chlorination Land treatment Metal salt coagulation / Sedimentation Lime coagulation / sedimentation Biological / chemical phosphorus removal Land treatment Carbon adsorption Tertiary ozonation Land treatment systems Chemical precipitation Ion exchange Land treatment

B B C/P C C B /C / P C/P C/P B/C C/P P C P C C C/P

Phosphorus

Refractory organics

Heavy metals

Dissolved inorganic solids

Ion exchange Reverse osmosis Electrodialysis

C P C

B = biological, C = Chemical, P = physical

Sewage water treatment:

The wastewater treatment mainly involves three stages: primary treatment, secondary treatment and tertiary treatment.7

Primary Treatment:
Screening for the removal of floating objects in a chamber comprising parallel arranged steel bars Wastewater is allowed flow into a grit chamber for a short time for the proper settling of heavy materials such as sand and grits. Sewage wastewater moves into a primary settling tank which is also known as sedimentation basin to enable the gradual settlement of suspended solid substances by gravitational force. Primary treatment is aimed to remove 60% of suspended solids and 40% of BOD.

2. Secondary Treatment
Trickling filter, activated sludge process and oxidation ponds called lagoons are the important procedures involved in the secondary treatment.

Trickling filter: - called sprinkling filters

Consists of an aerobic revolving sprinkler that is suspended over a bed of porous material. When the sewage water passes through the porous bed, various types of microbes such as bacteria, fungi and protozoan are absorbed in the aerobic filter medium. Treated sewage is aerated by the circulation of air through the porous bed. The sewage is recirculated repeatedly till the sufficient BOD reduction is achieved.

Figure 7: A typical diagram of a trickling filter8,9

B. Activated Sludge Process (ASP):

ASP involves a biological and aerobic treatment for wastewater9
After primary settling, the waste water is carried to an aeration tank. The aeration of wastes is done either by diffused compressed air or by mechanical stirring.

Oxygen is required by bacteria and other types of microorganisms present in the system to live, grow, and multiply in order to consume the dissolved organic "food", or pollutants in the waste. After several hours in a large holding tank, the water is separated from the sludge of bacteria and discharged from the system.

Activated sludge is returned to the treatment process - remainder is disposed of by one of several accepted methods. Clear, colourless and odourless effluent is obtained from an activated sludge. This process reduces the BOD by 85% to 90%. C. Oxidation ponds: The shallow artificial pond for the biological treatment of wastewater is called oxidation pond. Wastewater - algal and bacterial action at high temperature Oxidation ponds provide aerobic medium at the surface and anaerobic medium at the bottom layer. Aerobic bacteria degrade the organic matter in the sewage by utilising atmosphere O2.

The algae utilise the CO2 released by the aerobic bacteria for the photosynthetic purposes.
The sewage waste is being detained in the oxidation ponds for about 10-30 days.

3. Tertiary Treatment: advanced treatment

Primary objective: (i) reduction of Nitrogen (N2) and Phosphorus (P) contents in the effluent wastewater. (ii) reducing the eutrophication and BOD in the wastewater. Nitrogen Removal: Ammonium ion - oxidized to nitrate by bacteria like nitrobacter and nitrosomonas - in a process called nitrification.

2NH4+ + 3O2 nitrosomonas 2NO2- + O2 nitrobacter

2NO2- + 2H2O + 4H+ (5) 2NO3(6)

Once the ammonia has been oxidized to nitrate, it may be reduced by anaerobic bacteria such as pseudomonas, micrococcus, serratia and achromobactor.

denitrifying 4NO3-(aq) + 5 CH2O bacteria 2N2(g) + 4HCO3-(aq) + CO2 + 3H2O

(7)

This denitrification requires a source of carbohydrate10 and methanol is often used for that purpose.

6NO3- + 2CH3OH 6NO2- + 3CH3OH

6NO2- + 2CO2 + 4H2O

(8)

3N2 +3CO2 + 3H2O + 6OH- (9)

Nitrogen gas is released to the atmosphere and thus removed from the water.

Ammonium ion can be converted to volatile NH3 by adding lime to increase the pH, after which the pH is lowered again by CO2 injection to reprecipitate the lime.11
Finally, the remaining organic compounds can be filtered out with activated charcoal, and disinfectant can be added to produce quite pure water.

NH4+ (aq) + OH (aq) NH3(g) + H2O

(10)

 An alternative approach that does not involve pH modification is to

remove ammonium ions from the neutral solution by ion exchange using the natural ion exchanger clinoptilolite or synthetic exchangers. More complete removal of ammonium nitrogen is effected by subsequent chlorination, to form mono-, di-, and trichloroamines. Hypochlorous acid is the effective chlorinating species under treatment conditions.

NH4+(aq) + HOCl(aq) NH2Cl(aq) + H3O+(aq) NH2Cl(aq) + HOCl(aq) NHCl2(aq) + H2O HOCl(aq) + NHCl2(aq) NCl3(aq) + H2O

(11) (12) (13)

In the presence of carbon adsorption filters the chloramines undergo

a heterogenous surface reaction that produces nitrogen gas as one of the products.

Phosphorus Removal: Phosphorus appears in water as orthophosphate polyphosphate (P2O7), and organically bound phosphorus. (PO43-),

Microbes utilize phosphorus during cell synthesis and energy transport. As a result, 10 to 30 percent of all influent phosphorus is removed during secondary biological treatment.

This process is called Enhanced Biological Phosphorus Removal.

When the biomass enriched in these bacteria is separated from the treated water, these biosolids have a high fertilizer value.

 Phosphorus removal - achieved by chemical precipitation, usually with salts of iron (e.g. ferric chloride), aluminium (e.g. alum), or lime. This may lead to excessive sludge productions as hydroxides precipitates With lime, phosphate is removed as insoluble mineral hydroxyapetite Ca5(PO4)3(OH) (eqn.15).

Phosphorous, which is removed in the form of a phosphate rich sludge, may be land filled or resold for use in fertilizer.

Al3+ + PO435Ca(OH)2 + 3HPO42-

AlPO4

(14)

Ca2OH(PO4)3 + 3H2O + 6OH- (15)

Secondary effluent BOD = 25 mg/l PO43 = 25 mg/l NH4+ = 20 mg /l Phosphate removal Lime + PO43 Ca5(PO4)3(OH) Lime = Ca(OH)2 addition

Ammonia stripping NH4+ + OH NH3 + H2O NH3

Excess OH from lime pH = 11

Lime sludge

Recarbonation, lime precipitation, neutralization H2CO3 + Ca2+ + 2OH CaCO3 + H2O

pH = 7

Air CO2 Furnace Ca sludge + heat CaO CaCO3 sludge

Organic removal

Recycled lime CaO + H2O Ca(OH)2

Activated charcoal Final effluent BOD < 1mg/l PO43 = 0.2 - 1 mg/l NH4+ = 0.3 1.5 mg /l as N2 Chlorine

Figure 9: Tertiary treatment of municipal waste water 11

Process Flow Diagram for a typical large-scale treatment plant9

Figure 10: Overall Water Treatment Plant

Sludge Digestion:
The sewage sludge is large in bulk and contains putrescible substances and living organisms. Sludge is an excellent soil conditioner and it can be used as a fertilizer on farmland. However, it needs additional treatment to make it suitable. This treatment is called Sludge digestion and takes place in large, enclosed tanks.

The main objective of sludge digestion is to break the organic matter of the sludge into liquid and simple compounds which are stable and unfoul in nature. Digestion significantly reduces the sludge quantity. This process removes abut 99.8% coli forms. A by-product of the sludge digestion process is methane gas. This can be burned to produce electricity. Anaerobic digestion of sludge is given by the following equation (16)10

2 CH2O
.

CH4(g) + CO2(g)

The electricity can be used to heat more sludge or to provide heat and light for the treatment works. Sometimes more energy is produced than the required. The surplus is sold to the electricity companies.

References:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. http://earthguide.ucsd.edu/earthguide/diagrams/watercycle/ P.Anandan, R. Kumaravelan, Principles of Environmental Engineering, Scitech Publications (India) Pvt.Ltd., Ed., 2004. A. Ifthikarudeen, K. Pandian, S. Krishnan, Principles of Environmental Science and Engineering, Sooraj Publications, Ed., 2005. http://www.science.uwaterloo.ca/cchieh/cact/applychem/watertreatment.html http://www.mega.cz/electrodialysis.html http://www.scribd.com/doc/7019099/Treatment-Process-Flow-sheets http://www.pub.gov.sg/prodcts/usedwater/pages/WasteWaterTreatmentProcess.aspx http://tristate.apogee.net/et/ewtwtkf.asp http://en.wikipedia.or/wiki/Sewage treatment Gary W. vanLoon, Stephen J. Duffy, Enviromental Chemistry- A Global Perspective, Oxford University Press, 2003. Thomas G. Spiro, William M. Stigliani, Chemistry of the Environment, second edition, Prentice-Hall of India Pvt.Lt., Further Reference: http://water.me.vccs.edu/courses/ENV149/methods.htm http://www.cyber-nook.com/water/Solutions.html http://www.college.ucla.edu/webproject/micro7/studentprojects7/Rader/asludge2.htm

Exercise: 1. Preparation of solution:

Measure 4 cups of tap water into a large clear, colourless container. Add the following items to the water and then stir thoroughly with a large spoon: 1/2 teaspoon of the rusty metal object 1/2 teaspoon soil 2 or 3 small leaves 1 tablespoon household vinegar 1 tablespoon cooking oil.

2. Prepare a water filtration column by cutting off the bottom of a clean

empty 2-liter plastic bottle. 3. Remove and discard the bottle label. 4. Cut two pieces of cheesecloth. Layer the two squares one on top of the other. 5. Use the layered squares to cover the mouth of the bottle where the cap is normally attached. 6. Secure the cheesecloth over the mouth of the bottle with a rubber band. 7. Invert the bottle (mouth pointing down) and mount it in a ring stand with an empty, large, clear, colourless container beneath it to collect filtered liquid.

8. Place 2 cups of activated charcoal into the water filtration column (this layer will fill the neck and shoulders of the bottle). 9. Place 2 cups of sand into the water filtration column as the next layer.

10. Place 2 cups of gravel into the water filtration column as the final layer.
11. Place 3-4 cups of tap water onto the layer of gravel so the water passes through the column and cleans out any small particles of dirt and charcoal. Discard the water that drains into the collection container. 12. Measure and pour 3 cups of the unfiltered water from step 1 into the column, pouring it onto the layer of gravel. Observe the water as it passes through the filter. Place a sheet of white paper under the container of filtered water. Observe and record the properties of the filtered water. Using pH paper, measure and record its pH. 13. Compare its appearance with the water that remains from step 1. Measure how much filtered water was collected. Is it the same volume that you placed into the filter?

Be Safe: Do NOT consume any of the water in this Activity, including the filtered water. Harmful contaminants may remain.

SOLID WASTE TREATMENT INTRODUCTION:

Ever-increasing population - changing lifestyles, extensive use of disposable articles in day to day life, lack of awareness, lack of infrastructural facilities for proper treatment and disposal of garbage - major problems the Indian cities are facing.
As per the Municipal Solid Waste Rules, 2000, municipal bodies will be responsible for providing necessary infrastructure and manpower for segregation, transportation, storage, processing and disposal of municipal solid waste. NIMBY (Not In My Backyard) attitude of common man has made the task of the municipal bodies more difficult with respect to waste storage. Several studies conducted by environmental and technical institutions like NEERI indicate that over 100,000 metric tonnes of garbage are generated in the Indian cities per day. Only about 50%-80% of this waste gets collected for disposal on the dumping grounds. Remaining waste is left on the streets which eventually enters the drains, gutters etc.

These studies have also indicated that municipal solid waste is likely to reach 125,000 MT per day by the year 2030 considering the changing urban consumption pattern and increase in per capita income.
There are different categories of waste generated, each take their own time to degenerate (as given in the Table 1).1 Table 1: Categories of waste generated and their own time taken to degenerate1 Type of litter Organic waste such as vegetable and fruit peels, leftover foodstuff, etc. Paper Cotton cloth Wood Approximate time it takes to degenerate the litter A week or two

10-30 days 2-5 months 10-15 years

Woolen items
Tin, aluminium, and other metal items such as cans Plastic bags Glass bottles

1 year
100-500 years One million year Undetermined

SOLID WASTES - synonymous with the word refuse The wastes generated and discarded from human and animal activities that are normally solid are called as solid wastes.2 Components garbage rubbish

Animal and plant residue

combustible Trash

non-combustible white goods

rubble
Construction and demolition debris, rock fragments

Refrigerators, air conditioners Types of Solid Wastes depending on their source

Household waste is generally classified as municipal solid waste (MSW) Industrial waste as hazardous waste Biomedical waste or hospital waste as infectious waste.

Segregation of municipal solid waste Municipal waste - generated in ever increasing volumes in the urban areas.
Municipal Solid Waste Segregated at source

Recyclable dry waste

Organic fraction

Inert debris

Hazardous waste

Non combustibles

Combustibles

Biological treatment

Glass, Metal Recycling industries

Packaging material, paper

Fuel pallets

Low grade construction, paving of roads

Hospital Waste Incineration

Others

Composting, vermi composting, biogas, landfill gas

Planned according to the specific requirement

Figure 1: Segregation of municipal solid waste3

Solid waste characteristics: Fundamental functions of solid waste management: Collection, processing and disposal To effectively implement these functions, solid wastes may be characterised as to their rates of generation, as well as to their physical and chemical characteristics. Chemical properties of Municipal Solid Wastes: Accurate information on the chemical composition of the components of MSW is important for a number of reasons. Composition of landfill leachate is directly affected by MSW composition. Composition must be known for evaluating alternative MSW processing and recovery options. If solid wastes are to be used as a fuel, some important properties4 to determine include ultimate analysis, proximate analysis, energy content, and particle size distribution.

Ultimate Analysis of solid waste components:

Defined as its total elemental analysis, i.e., the percentage of Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Sulphur, and ash in a sample.

Due to concerns over emissions of chlorinated compounds, during combustion, the determination of halogens is often included in an ultimate analysis.
The percent values of C, H, N, S and chlorine are measured directly by established procedures. The Oxygen value is calculated by subtracting the other components, including ash and moisture, from 100%. The results of Ultimate analysis are typically used to characterise the chemical composition of the organic fraction of MSW. Such a determination is essential for combustion. The data are also used to define the proper mix of MSW materials to achieve suitable nutrient ration (e.g., C/N) for biological conversion processes such as composting.

Data on the ultimate analysis of individual combustible materials are presented in Table 2.
Table 2: Ultimate Analysis of the combustible components in MSW. Component % by wt (dry basis)

O
Organic

Ash

Paper Plastics Foodwastes Yard wastes Textiles

43.5 60.0 48.0 47.8 55.0

6.0 7.2 6.4 6.0 6.6

44.0 22.8 37.6 38.0 31.2

0.3 2.6 3.4 4.6

0.2 0.4 0.3 0.15

6.0 10.0 5.0 4.5 2.5

Rubber
Wood

78.0
49.5

10.0
6.0

42.7 Inorganic

2.0
0.2

0.1

10.0
1.5

Glass Metals Dirt, ash MSW

0.5 4.5 26.3 15.30

0.1 0.6 3.0 2.5

0.4 4.3 2.0 12.24

<0.1 <0.1 0.5 0.2-1.0

0.2 0.02-0.1

98.9 90.5 68.0 -

The ash fraction is the residual remaining after combustion and is primarily inorganic.

Ash may exit an incinerator and enter the atmosphere via the flue, or, it may be retained within the solid waste residue.
Ash from unprocessed, unsorted MSW typically contains a much higher content of potentially toxic metals such as Cadmium (Cd), Lead (Pb), and Mercury (Hg). A number of non-toxic metals also occur, such as iron, copper, magnesium, calcium, and sodium.
Table 3: Composition of a sample of MSW Ash. Material Metals Combustibles Ferrous metal Non-Ferrous metal Glass Ceramics Mineral, ash, other Percentage by weight 16 4.0 18.3 2.7 26.2 8.3 24.1

Proximate Analysis of MSW: Used to estimate the capability of MSW as a fuel. Proximate analysis includes the following tests. Moisture content, determined by loss of moisture after heating at 105 C for 1h. Volatile combustible matter, the additional loss of weight after ignition at 950 C for 7 min in a recovered crucible (oxygen is excluded). Fixed Carbon, the combustible residue left after volatile matter is removed. (Ignition at 600 to 900 C). Ash, the weight of residue after combustion in an open crucible. Proximate analysis data for the combustible components of MSW and bulk samples of MSW are presented in Table 4.

Table 4: Typical Proximate Analysis of MSW and MSW components. Waste Type Moisture Volatile Fixed Carbon
3.6 8.4 2 <0.1 0.7 10.8 17.5 11.3 -

Non combustable (ash)

5.0 5.4 2 1.2 0.5 2.1 6.5 0.6 96.99

Food mixed Paper mixed Plastics mixed Polyethylene Polystyrene PVC Textiles Wood mixed Glass

70.0 10.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 10 20 2

21 76 96 98 99 87 66 68 -

Metals
Domestic MSW

2.5
10.40

30-60

3-15

94.99
10-30

3. Energy Content of MSW:

The energy content of solid waste is the heat of combustion released when the waste is burned. Two types of heats of combustion: Higher heat of combustion and Lower heat of combustion.

Higher heat of combustion includes the heat of vaporization of water, while lower heat of combustion does not include the heat of vaporization of water.
Energy content of MSW are based on the results of bomb calorimeter tests. The energy stored within the chemical bonds of a material is known as the heat of combustion. This heat is released when the material is burned. The heat generated by the combustion of a material in a calorimeter may be determined by measuring the temperature rise that occurs upon its combustion. U = CvT / M Where U is the heat value (cal/g) of the unknown material, T the rise in temperature (C) from thermogram, M the mass (g) of unknown material, and Cv the heat capacity (cal / C) of the calorimeter (measured by using standardised material).

Fusion point of Ash:

Provides information on its physical behaviour under high temperatures, i.e., softening and melting. Temperature at which the ash from waste combustion forms clinker by fusion and agglomeration. Fusion temperatures are often measured under both reducing and oxidizing conditions. Typical fusion temperatures for clinker formation from MSW range from 1100 to 1200 C.

Content of Nutrients and other substrates:

In applications where the organic fraction of MSW is used as feedstock for compost or biological conversion into methane, ethanol, information on the essential nutrients in the waste materials is important. The organic fraction of most MSW can be classified according to their relative degree of biodegradability as follows: Sugars Starches and organic acids Proteins and amino acids Hemicellulose Cellulose and lignocellulose Lignin Fats, oils, and waxes.

Physical properties of MSW:

Density: The most important use of the knowledge of the density of solid waste is the determination of its compacted volume. For better control of operation, it is easier just to weigh things than to measure volumes. By knowledge of the compacted density, the volume of landfill space requirement can be calculated easily. Compacted volume is also required to size vehicles used to collect solid wastes. Densities of solid waste may be expressed on an as-compacted or asdiscarded basis. The ratio of the as-compacted density c to the as-discarded density d is called the compaction ratio r, or r = c/ d Moisture content: The moisture content of solid wastes is useful for estimating heat content, landfill sizing, and transport requirements. Moisture content is expressed either as a percentage of the wet weight or as a percentage of the dry weight of the material. The wet-weight method is more commonly used and is expressed as follows: M = (w-d) / w 100 where M is the moisture content (%), w the initial weight of sample as delivered and d the weight of the sample after drying at 105C.

Particle size distribution:

The distribution of solid waste components is important for improving the rate of chemical reactions. Smaller particle sizes provide greater surface area - rapid reaction with microorganisms in a compost pile, or more rapid combustion in an incinerator (Table 5).

Important consideration in the recovery of materials, for example, with the use of processing equipment such as trommel screen or a magnetic separator.
Table 5: Typical particle size distribution of MSW Component Size range (mm) Typical (mm) Food Paper and Cardboard Plastics Glass Metals Clothing and textiles 0-200 100-500 0-400 0-200 0-200 0-300 100 350 200 100 100 150

Ashes, dust

0-100

25

Field capacity:
Field capacity may defined as the total amount of moisture retained by mixed solids against the force of gravity.

Hydraulic Conductivity of compacted waste:

The hydraulic conductivity, designated as K, of compacted waste strongly influences the movement of liquids (especially leachate) and gases in a land fill. Dense materials such as sludges tend to resist rainfall infiltration and promote runoff from landfill cell. In contrast, paper and yard waste, by virtue of having large particles and therefore large void space, exhibit little resistance to rainfall infiltration.

PROCESSING OF SOLID WASTES Purpose of Processing

(i) to improve the efficiency of solid waste management systems, (ii) to recover the usable materials for reuses and (iii) to recover conversion products and energy.5,2

Waste processing Techniques: 1. Mechanical volume and size reduction: a. Compaction (Mechanical volume reduction):
In almost all solid waste management systems, the reduction of volume is an important factor. Collection vehicles with compaction mechanisms are used for the collection of solid wastes (Figure 2). To increase the useful life of landfills, wastes usually are compacted before being covered. Stationary and movable type of compaction equipments are used for the process of compaction

b. Shredding ( size reduction):

Objective - to obtain a final product of uniform reduced size in comparison to its original form. Size reduction reduction. does not imply volume

The total volume after shredding may be higher than that of before shredding in some situations. Application of size is that, the shredded wastes can be disposed off in land fills without using daily cover.

Used in systems designed to recover materials and energy from solid wastes.

2. Component separation

Air separation: Used to separate lighter materials (usually organic)

from heavier (usually inorganic) ones. The lighter material may include plastics, paper, paper products and other organic materials.

Magnetic separation:
Method of recovering ferrous scrap from shredded solid wastes When wastes are mass-fired in incinerators, the magnetic separator is used to remove the ferrous material from the incinerator residue. Screening: common form of separating solid wastes - depending on their size by the use of one or more screening surfaces.

Used before and after shredding and after air separation of wastes in various applications dealing with both light and heavy fraction materials.
Other separation techniques: Hand-sorting or previewing: Previewing of the waste stream and manual removal of large sized materials is necessary, prior to most types of separation or size reduction techniques. Prevent damage or stoppage of equipment such as shredders or screens, due to items such as rugs, pillows, mattresses, large metallic or plastic objects, wood or other construction materials, paint cans, etc.

Inertial separation: Inertial methods rely on ballistic or gravity separation principles to separate shredded solid wastes into light ( i.e., organic) and heavy ( i.e., inorganic) particles. Flotation: Glass rich feedstock is immersed in water in a soluble tank. Glass chips, rocks, bricks, bones and dense plastic materials that sink to the bottom are removed with belt scrappers for further processing. Light organic and other materials that float are skimmed from the surface. These materials are taken to landfill sites or to incinerators for energy recovery. Chemical adhesives (flocculants) are also used to improve the capture of light organic and fine inorganic materials. Optical sorting: Used to separate glass from the waste stream - can be accomplished by identification of the transparent properties of glass to sort it from opaque materials (e.g., stones, ceramics, bottle caps, corks. Etc.,) in the waste stream.

3. Drying and Dewatering

Shredded waste material is pre-dried to decrease its weight by removing the amount of moisture. If there is any need for incineration of sludge from treatment plants, then dewatering is essential.

TECHNOLOGIES AVAILABLE DISPOSAL OF SOLID WASTE

FOR

PROCESSING,

TREATMENT,

AND

The main technological options available for processing/ treatment and disposal of MSW are composting, vermi-composting, anaerobic digestion/biomethanation, incineration, gasification and pyrolysis, plasma pyrolysis, production of Refuse Derived Fuel (RDF), also known as pelletization and sanitary landfilling/landfill gas recovery.6,7 The choice of technology has to be made based on the waste, quality, and local conditions.

The best compromise would be to choose the technology, which (1) has lowest life cycle cost, (2) needs least land area, (3) causes practically no air and land pollution, (4) produces more power with less waste, and (5) causes maximum volume reduction.

There was a tendency to use these well-proven technology for waste to-energy conversion.

As described in Figure 4, MSW without segregation could be used either in sanitary landfill or mass burning to produce power.
However, after mechanical segregation, an energy-rich fuel called RDF (refuse derived fuel) is obtained, which can be used to produce power either through biochemical or thermal rout. In biochemical rout, only anaerobic digestion has been used commercially while in the case of thermal rout, both pyrolysis and RDF burning have been used successfully for commercial purposes.

Municipal solid waste Sanitary land fill Mass burning Ferrous Mechanical segregation Aluminium Glass

Biochemical conversion Anaerobic digestion

Refuse derived fuel

Thermal conversion RDF burning Steam

Hydrolysis / Fermentation

Pyrolysis Oil, gas and CHAR

Methane

Ethanol

Figure 4: Options for energy production from MSW (municipal solid waste)7

1. Composting: Composting is the decomposition of organic matter by microorganism in warm, moist, aerobic and anaerobic environment. Composting is suitable for organic biodegradable fraction of MSW, yard (or garden) waste/waste containing high proportion of lignocelluloses materials, which do not readily degrade under anaerobic conditions, waste from slaughterhouse and dairy waste. The overall composting process6 can be explained as follows: organic matter + O2 + aerobic bacteria CO2 + NH3 + H2O + other end products + energy Compost is the end product of the composting process. This finished product, which looks like soil, is high in carbon and nitrogen and is an excellent medium for growing plants. Composting is an environmentally sound and beneficial means of recycling organic materials and not a means of waste disposal.

2. Vermi Composting Vermi-compost is the natural organic manure produced from the excreta of earthworms fed on scientifically semi-decomposed organic waste. It is, however, to be ensured that toxic material does not enter the chain which if present could kill the earthworms. 3. Biogasification: Biogas is a mixture of gases composed of methane (CH4) 40-70% vol%, carbondioxide (CO2) 30-60 vol%, other gases 1-5 vol% including - hydrogen (H2) 0-1 vol% and hydrogen sulphide (H2S) 0-3 vol%.6

It originates from bacteria in the process of bio-degradation of organic material under anaerobic (without air) conditions.
The natural generation of biogas is an important part of the biogeochemical carbon cycle.

In the absence of oxygen, anaerobic bacteria decompose organic matter as follows:

Organic matter + anerobic bacteria CH4 + CO2 + H2S + NH3 + Other end products + Energy.
Methanogens (methane producing bacteria) are the last link in a chain of microorganism, which degrade organic materials and return the decomposition products to the environment. In this process, biogas is generated, which is a source of renewable energy. Anaerobic processing of organic material is a two-stage process, where large organic polymers are fermented into short-chain volatile fatty acids. These acids are then converted into methane and carbon dioxide. .

The metabolic stages in biogasification are illustrated in Figure 5. Complex organic carbon Hydrolysis Monomers Organic acids Acetic acid H2 +CO2 CH4 + CO2 Acidogenesis Acetogenesis Methanogenesis

In biogasification process both the organic polymers fermentation process and acid conversion occur at the same time, in a single-phase system Biogasification process is particularly suitable for wet substrates, such as sludges or foodwaste, which present difficulties in composting, as the lack of structural material restricts air circulation.

4. Incineration
Incineration is a waste treatment technology that involves the combustion of organic materials and/or substances. Incineration and other high temperature waste treatment systems are described as thermal treatment. This process converts the waste into incinerator bottom ash, flue gases, particulates, and heat, which can in turn be used to generate electric power.

The flue gases are cleaned of pollutants before they are dispersed in the atmosphere Incinerators reduce the volume of the original waste by 95-96 %, depending upon composition and degree of recovery of materials such as metals from the ash for recycling. Incineration has particularly strong benefits for the treatment of certain waste types in niche areas such as clinical wastes and certain hazardous wastes where pathogens and toxins can be destroyed by high temperatures.

5. Pyrolysis/Gasification, Plasma Pyrolysis Vitrification (PPV)/Plasma Arc Process: Pyrolysis gasification processes are established for homogenous organic matter like wood, pulp, etc., while plasma pyrolysis vitrification is a relatively new technology for disposal of particularly hazardous wastes, radioactive wastes, etc. Toxic materials get encapsulated in vitreous mass, which is relatively much safer to handle than incinerator/gasifier ash. In all these processes, besides net energy recovery, proper destruction of the waste is also ensured. This process produces fuel gas/fuel oil, which replace fossil fuels and compared to incineration, atmospheric pollution can be controlled at the plant level.

NO and SO gas emissions do not occur in normal operations due to the lack of oxygen in the system.

Carbonaceous solids

Heat

High- and moderate molecular weigth + Char + organic liquids (tars and oils, some aromatics)

Low-molecular weigth organic liquids (many organic acids and aromatics)

Organic liquids

heat

Low-molecular Aromatic weight organic organics + NH3 + H2S + liquids COS + HCN HCN

Char + CH4 + H2 + H2O + CO + CO2 Amounts depend on nitrogen and sulphur content in feed stock

Figure 6: Pyrolysis and gasification reactions.8

6. Sanitary Landfills and Landfill Gas Recovery

Sanitary landfill is the scientific dumping of municipal solid waste due to which the maturity of the waste material is achieved faster and hence gas collection starts even during the landfill procedure.

 Its main advantage is that it is the least cost option for waste disposal and has the potential for the recovery of landfill gas as a source of energy, with net environmental gains if organic wastes are landfilled. The gas after necessary cleaning can be utilized for power generation or as domestic fuel for direct thermal applications.

Hazardous waste Industrial and hospital waste is considered hazardous as they may contain toxic substances. Certain types of household waste are also hazardous. Hazardous wastes are toxic, corrosive, highly inflammable, or explosive and react when exposed to certain things e.g. gases. India generates around 7 million tonnes of hazardous wastes every year, most of which is concentrated in four states: Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu. Household wastes that can be categorized as hazardous waste include old batteries, shoe polish, paint tins, old medicines, and medicine bottles. The different types of symbols used to designate the hazards and recycling of waste is presented in Table 6.9

Table 6: Common hazard and recyle symbols. Name Symbol Name Non-ionizing radiation sign Symbol

Toxic sign

Biohazard sign Caution sign

Warning sign Radiation sign

High voltage sign Ionizing radiation sign

Laser hazard sign Chemical weapon symbol Recycle arrow Optical radiation

In the industrial sector, the major generators of hazardous waste are the metal, chemical, paper, pesticide, dye, refining, and rubber goods industries. Direct exposure to chemicals in hazardous waste such as mercury and cyanide can be fatal.

Biomedical waste or Hospital waste

Hospital waste is generated during the diagnosis, treatment, or immunization of human beings or animals or in research activities in these fields or in the production or testing of biologicals. It may include wastes like sharps, soiled waste, disposables, anatomical waste, cultures, discarded medicines, chemical wastes, etc.

These are in the form of disposable syringes, swabs, bandages, body fluids, human excreta, etc. The chemicals include formaldehyde and phenols, which are used as disinfectants, and mercury, which is used in thermometers or equipment that measure blood pressure.
These waste is highly infectious and can be a serious threat to human health if not managed in a scientific and discriminate manner. It has been roughly estimated that of the 4 kg of waste generated in a hospital at least 1 kg would be infected.

 Surveys carried out by various agencies show that the health care establishments in India are not giving due attention to their waste management.
After the notification of the Bio-medical Waste (Handling and Management) Rules, 1998, these establishments are slowly streamlining the process of waste segregation, collection, treatment, and disposal. Many of the larger hospitals have either installed the treatment facilities or are in the process of doing so.

The Rules have defined and stipulated ten categories of biomedical wastes generated by hospitals on a daily basis and clearly specified the methods and means of safe disposal (Table 7).

Table 7: Categories, Disposal mode and Colour adopted for different types of biomedical wastes2
Category of Waste Type of Waste Examples Type of Treatment Mode of Disposal Colour Type of Container

Human Anatomical Waste

Human tissues, organs, body parts.

Incineration

Deep burial

Yellow

Plastic Bags

II

Animal Waste

Animal tissues, organs, body parts, carcasses, bleeding parts, fluid, blood, waste generated by veterinary hospitals, colleges, discharge from hospitals, animal houses.

Incineration

Deep burial

Yellow

Plastic Bags

III

Microbiology and biotechnological wastes

Wastes from laboratory cultures, stocks or specimen of micro organisms live or attenuated vaccines, human and animal cell cultures used in research and infectious agents from research and industrial laboratories

Autoclaving / Microwaving

Incineration

Yellow

Plastic Bags

Red Plastic Bag

Disinfected container

IV

Waste Sharps

Used and unused needles, syringes, scalpels, blades, glass, etc.

Autoclaving / Microwaving / Chemical disinfection

Shredding

Blue/White translucent

Puncture proof container/ Plastic Bag

Discarded Medicine & Cytotoxic drug Soiled Wastes

Outdated, contaminated and discarded medicines Items contaminated with body fluids and blood including cotton, dressings, soiled plaster casts, bedding, etc.

Incineration

Secured Land fill

Black

Plastic Bag

VI

Autoclaving / Microwaving / Chemical disinfection Autoclaving / Microwaving / Chemical disinfection

Shredding

Yellow Red Plastic Bag

Plastic Bags Disinfected container Disinfected container Puncture proof container/ Plastic Bag -

VII

Solid Wastes

Wastes generated from disposable items other than the waste sharps such as tubing, catheters, intravenous sets, etc.

Land fill

Red Plastic Bag Blue/White translucent

VIII

Liquid Wastes

Waste generated from laboratory and washing, cleaning, house keeping and disinfecting activities Ash from incineration of any biomedical waste Chemicals used in production of biological, chemicals used in disinfecting, as insecticides, etc

Chemical disinfection drains Chemical disinfection

Discharge into drains

IX X

Incineration Ash Chemical Wastes

Municipal Land fill Secured land fills for solids and discharge into drains for liquids.

Black Black

Plastic Bag Plastic Bag

WASTE MINIMISATION
More benefits can be achieved from the better use and disposal of wastes. Four types of waste management to be employed are10 Refuse Reuse Recycle Reduce In India, some municipal areas have banned the use of plastics and they seem to have achieved success. For example, today one will not see a single piece of plastic in the entire district of Ladakh where the local authorities imposed a ban on plastics in 1998.1 One positive note is that in many large cities, shops have begun packing items in reusable or biodegradable bags. Certain biodegradable items can also be composted and reused. If one follows the waste trucks flying on the roads of Chennai, one could end up in Perungudi, almost at the heart of the city, where a large waste dump is maintained, or at Kodungaiyur, on the outskirts.11 The Perungudi dump yard receives more than 1,400 tonnes per day of solid waste.

One visit to Perungudi establishes the fact that the site is a large producer of dioxins and other poisonous gases, and that it could be a good place to set up a facility making chemical weapons for a large army. From the 800 tonnes of solid waste collected in Coimbatore city per day, it was possible to generate eight mega watts of power resulting in 700 lakh units of electricity production annually. The annual income from electricity would be about Rs. 21 crore. In addition to power generation, equal amount of income could also be generated through manure production from slurry coming out of biogas plants. The maintenance of waste to power generation project through anaerobic digestion (biogas plant) could be economical, if maintained by the local youth groups like Self-Help Groups.

What you can do to reduce solid waste? Carry your own cloth or jute bag when you go shopping. Say no to all plastic bags as far as possible. Reduce the use of paper bags also. Reuse the soft drinks polybottles for storing water. Segregate the waste in the house - keep two garbage bins and see to it that the biodegradable and the nonbiodegradable is put into separate bins and dispose off separately. Dig a compost pit in your garden and put all the biodegradables into it. See to it that all garbage is thrown into the municipal bin as the collection is generally done from there. When you go out do not throw paper and other wrappings or even leftover food here and there, make sure that it is put in the correct place, that is into a dustbin As far as possible try to sell all the recyclable items that are not required to the Kabariwala (person who trades in waste)

References:
1. http://edugreen.teri.res.in/explore/solwaste/types.htm 2. P. Anandan, R. Kumaravelan, Principles of Environmental Engineering, Scitech Publications (India) Pvt.Ltd., Ed., 2004.h 3. http://edugreen.teri.res.in/explore/solwaste/wastemgt.htm 4. John Pichtel, Waste Management Practices, Taylor and Francis, 2005. 5. T. V. Ramachandra, Management of Municipal Solid Waste, Capital Publishing Company, 2006. 6. P.U. Asnani, Solid waste management in India Infrastructure Report 2006, Urban Infrastructure. 7. Sudhir Kumar, Technology options for municipal solid waste-to-energy project, Times (TERI Information Monitor on Environmental Science) 5(1): 1 11, 2000. 8. Vincent Cavaseno and the staff of chemical engineering, Industrial wastewater and solid waste engineering, McGraw-Hill Publications Co., New York,N.Y. 1980. 9. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hazaed_symbol 10. http://edugreen.teri.res.in/explore/solwaste/what.htm 11. http://www.hinduonnet.com/businessline/2001/06/13/stories/04136708.htm