Dr.Niranjan Murthy H.

L
Assistant Prof of Physiology
SSMC, Tumkur
 Behaviour of gases
1. Kinetic theory of gases
2. Boyle’s law- Pressure and volume are
inversely related at a given temperature
3. Charles’s law- volume of a gas is
inversely related to temperature at a
given pressure
4. Avogadro's law- equal volume of
different gases at a given temperature &
pressure have same number of
molecules
Boyle’s law
5. Ideal gas law- PV=nRT
6. Dalton’s law- Px=P.Fx
7. Henry’s law- volume of gas dissolved in a
liquid is proportional to it’s partial pressure
Cx=K.Px
8. Graham’s law- Rate of diffusion of a gas
is inversely proportional to square root of
it’s density
 Ventilation
• Process of moving O2 from atmosphere
into alveoli and removing CO2 from alveoli
into atmosphere
• Tidal volume- volume of air moved in or
out of lungs with each breath at rest. It is
normally 500ml in young adults. It includes
alveolar gas and dead space gas
Lung volumes and capacities
Spirometry- in 1846, Hutchison used it for
the first time in London on sailors, pugilists
giants and dwarfs
Spirogram
• Tidal volume- amount of air breathed in or out
in a single resting respiratory cycle. 500ml
2. Expiratory reserve volume- maximum amount
of air that can expired after the end of tidal
expiration. 1100ml
3. Inspiratory reserve volume- maximum amount
of air that can be inspired at the end of tidal
inspiration. 3000ml
4. Residual volume- amount of air left behind in
the lungs at the end of maximal expiration.
1200ml
5. Inspiratory capacity- tidal volume +
inspiratory reserve volume. 3500ml

6. Functional residual capacity- expiratory

reserve volume + residual volume. 2300ml

7. Vital capacity- IRV+TV+ERV. 4600ml

8. Total lung capacity- VC+RV. 5800ml

• Vital capacity gives useful information about
strength of muscles of respiration
• Factors affecting VC:
3. Physiological
(i) Age
(ii) Sex
(iii) posture
(iv) strength of respiratory muscles
8. Pathological
(i) VC decreases in restrictive lung diseases,
pleural effusion, pulmonary edema
(ii) VC decreases in ascites
 Measurement of FRC
1. Helium dilution method-
C1xV1=C2(V1+V2)
C1.V1=C2.V1+C2.V2
C2.V2=C1.V1-C2.V1
V2=V1(C1-C2)/C2
2. Nitrogen exhalation method
Helium dilution method
N2 exhalation method
• Significance of FRC- it acts as a buffer
and prevent rapid changes in alveolar air
by maintaining residual volume
• Factors affecting FRC-
3. COPD
4. Old age
5. Atelectasis
 Flow of air in lungs
Bulk flow- air moves by bulk flow or
convection in conducting zone
Diffusion- as the flow rate comes almost to
stagnation, the movement of air in
respiratory zone occurs by diffusion
 Total Vs. Alveolar ventilation
Tidal volume- 500ml

Respiratory rate- 12 to 16/min

Total ventilation= TV x RR= 6000ml/min

Dead space= 150ml

Alveolar ventilation= 350x12= 4200ml/min

Measurement of alveolar ventilation
VT=VD+VA VT= tidal volume
n.VT=n.VD+n.VA VD=dead space volume
n.VE=n.VD+n.VA VA=alveolar volume
n=respiratory rate

1. Simple approximation- dead space

volume is approximately equal to the
weight of subject in pounds
2. CO2 estimation method
There is no CO2 in dead space at the end of
inspiration
So, VCO2 = VA.FA CO2
VA = VCO2 / FA CO2
where VCO2 is volume of CO2 expired per unit
time and FACO2 is fractional concentration of CO2
in alveolar gas
VCO2 is estimated by collecting expired air and
analyzing it for CO2
FA CO2 is estimated by a rapid CO2
analyzer in the mouthpiece
PACO2 = FACO2.K
PaCO2 ά PACO2
VA = (VCO2/ PaCO2).K
 Dead space
1. Anatomic dead space
 Conducting zone of airways
 150ml
 Depends on size & posture of subject
and volume of inspiration
 Estimation by Fowler’s method
Fowler’s method
Sampling of gases
2. Physiological dead space
 Alveoli not involved in air exchange +
conducting zone
 Estimated by Bohr’s method
Bohr’s method
All expired CO2 comes from alveoli
VT.FECO2 = VA.FACO2
VT.FECO2 = (VT-VD).FACO2
VT.FECO2 = VT.FACO2-VD.FACO2
VD/VT = (FACO2-FECO2)/FACO2
VD/VT = (PaCO2-PECO2)/PaCO2

Normal VD/VT is 0.2-0.35

It is increased in old age, emphysema,
bronchiectasis & pulmonary embolism and
reduced in exercise.
 Variations in dead space
1. physiological-
(i) sex
(ii) age
(iii) height
5. pathological-
(i) emphysema
(ii) bronchiectasis
(iii) pulmonary embolism
 Analysis of respiratory gases
• Chemical absorption methods-
(ii) Haldane’s method
(iii) Scholander’s method
• Physical methods-
(v) Respiratory mass spectrometer
(vi) Infrared analyzers
(vii) Radiation emission
(viii)Paramagnetic analyzers
(ix) Gas chromatography
(x) Thermal conductivity analyzers
 Non-respiratory functions of the
lung
1.Functions of respiratory passages

1. Filtration
(i) hairs of nostrils
(ii) turbulent precipitation
(iii) gravitational precipitation
(iv) PAM
2. Cough reflex
3. Sneeze reflex
4. Warming inspired air
5. Humidification of inspired air
6. Phonation
 2. Functions of pulmonary
circulation
1. Reservoir for left ventricle
2. Filter- small clots, fat cells, gas bubbles,
detached cancer cells, debris from
stored blood
3. Fluid exchange and drug absorption
3. Metabolic & endocrine functions
1. Surfactant
2. Prostaglandins
3. Histamine
4. Kallikrein
5. Substances removed from blood-
prostaglandins, bradykinin, serotonin,
nor-epinephrine, acetylcholine
6. Substances activated in lungs-
angiotensin