DIRECTING - MOTIVATION

- Deepti Sharma

OBJECTIVES LEARNING

After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Outline the motivation process. 2. Describe Maslows need hierarchy. 3. Contrast Theory X and Theory Y. 4. Differentiate motivators from hygiene factors. 5. List the characteristics that high achievers prefer in a job. 6. Summarize the types of goals that increase performance.

O B J E C T I V E S (cont d)

After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

7. 8. 9. Explain the job characteristics model. State the impact of underrewarding employees. Clarify key relationships in expectancy theory.

LEARNING

10. Explain how the contemporary theories of motivation complement each other.

Defining Motivation
The processes that account for an individual s intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal. It is derived from the word motive which means needs, wants, drives or impulses within the individual Key Elements 1. Intensity: how hard a person tries 2. Direction: toward beneficial goal 3. Persistence: how long a person tries

Early Theories of Motivation

1. 2. 3. 4. Maslows hierarchy of needs theory McGregors Theory X and Theory y Herzbergs two factor theory McClellands three needs theory

Hierarchy of Needs Theory (Abraham Maslow)

 Maslow proposed that within every person is a hierarchy of five needs
Lower-Order Needs Needs that are satisfied externally; physiological and safety needs. Higher-Order Needs Needs that are satisfied internally; social, esteem, and self-actualization needs.

Contd
1. Physiological Needs - These include the most basic needs that are vital to survival, such as the need for water, air, food and sleep. 2. Safety Needs - These include needs for safety and security. Examples of security needs include a desire for steady employment, health insurance, safe neighborhoods and shelter from the environment. 3. Social Needs - These include needs for belonging, love and affection. 4. Esteem Needs - These include the need for things that reflect on selfesteem, personal worth, social recognition and accomplishment. 5. Self-actualizing Needs - This is the highest level of Maslows hierarchy of needs. Self-actualizing people are self-aware, concerned with personal growth, less concerned with the opinions of others and interested fulfilling their potential.

Theory X and Theory Y (Douglas McGregor)

McGregor proposed two assumptions about human nature : Theory X and Theory Y
Theory X

Assumes that employees dislike work, lack ambition, avoid responsibility, and must be directed and coerced to perform.

Theory Y Assumes that employees like work, seek responsibility, are capable of making decisions, and exercise selfdirection and self-control when committed to a goal.

Two-Factor Theory (Frederick Herzberg)

Also called as Motivation-Hygiene theory

Intrinsic factors are related to job satisfaction, while extrinsic factors are associated with dissatisfaction.

Hygiene Factors Factors such as company policy and administration, supervision, and salary that, when adequate in a job, placate workers. When factors are adequate, people will not be dissatisfied.

Factors characterizing events on the job that led to extreme job dissatisfaction

Factors characterizing events on the job that led to extreme job satisfaction

Comparison of Satisfiers and Dissatisfiers

Contd

Motivation factors increase job satisfaction Company policy & administration Supervision Interpersonal relations Working conditions Salary Status Security

Achievement Achievement recognition Work itself Responsibility Advancement Growth Salary

Hygiene factors avoid job dissatisfaction

Contrasting Views of Satisfaction and Dissatisfaction

ERG Theory (Clayton Alderfer)

ERG Theory There are three groups of core needs: existence, relatedness, and growth.

Core Needs Existence: provision of basic material requirements. Relatedness: desire for relationships. Growth: desire for personal development.

Concepts: More than one need can be operative at the same time. If a higher-level need cannot be fulfilled, the desire to satisfy a lowerlevel need increases.

David McClellands Theory of Needs

According to this theory there are three acquired needs that are major motivators in work. Need for Achievement The drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standards, to strive to succeed. Need for Affiliation The desire for friendly and close personal relationships.

Need for Power The need to make others behave in a way that they would not have behaved otherwise.

nPow

nAch

nAff

Contd
Need for Achievement (nAch)
Desire to do something better or more efficiently, to solve problems, or to master complex tasks.

People high in (nAch) prefer work that:

Involves individual responsibility for results. Involves achievable but challenging goals. Provides feedback on performance.

Need for Power (nPower) People high in (nPower) prefer work that:
Involves control over other persons. Has an impact on people and events. Brings public recognition and attention.

Contd
Need for Affiliation (nAff)
Desire to establish and maintain friendly and warm relations with other persons.

People high in (nAff) prefer work that:

Involves interpersonal relationships. Provides for companionship Brings social approval.

Need for Achievement (nAch)

People with a high need for achievement  Strive for personal achievement rather than rewards of success.  They have a desire to do something better or more efficiently than its been done before  High achievers avoid what they perceive to be very easy or very difficult tasks  A need to achieve doesnt necessarily lead to being a good manager because high achievers focus on their own accomplishments, while good managers emphasize helping others accomplish their goals.

Matching High Achievers and Jobs

Contemporary theories

Cognitive Evaluation Theory

 Providing an extrinsic reward for behavior that had been previously only intrinsically rewarding tends to decrease the overall level of motivation.  The theory may only be relevant to jobs that are neither extremely dull nor extremely interesting.  Extrinsic rewards that are verbal (e.g. praises) or tangible ( e.g. money) can have different effects on individuals intrinsic motivation i.e. verbal rewards increase intrinsic motivation whereas tangible rewards undermine it

Goal-Setting Theory (Edwin Locke)

The theory states that specific and difficult goals, with feedback, lead to higher performance. Properly set and well-managed task goals can be highly motivating. Motivational effects of task goals: Provide direction to people in their work. Clarify performance expectations. Establish a frame of reference for feedback. Provide a foundation for behavioral selfmanagement.

Contd
 Participation in goal setting

unlocks the motivational potential of goal setting. management by objectives (MBO) promotes participation. when participation is not possible, workers will respond positively if supervisory trust and support exist.

 Factors influencing the goals performance relationship:

Goal commitment, adequate self-efficacy, task characteristics, and national culture.

Self-Efficacy theory
 Also known as social cognitive theory or social learning theory  The individual s belief that he or she is capable of performing a task.  The higher the self-efficacy the more confidence you have in your ability to succeed in a task  Individuals high in self-efficacy seem to respond to negative feedback with increased effort and motivation, while those low in self-efficacy are likely to lessen their effort when given negative feedback  Managers can help their employees to achieve high level of selfefficacy by bringing together goal-setting theory and selfefficacy theory

Contd
Albert Bandura argues that there are four ways to increase selfefficacy 1) Enactive mastery gaining relevant experience with the task or job 2) Vicarious modeling becoming more confident because you see someone else doing the task 3) Verbal persuasion - becoming more confident because someone convinces you that you have the skills necessary to be successful 4) Arousal Arousal leads to an energized state which drives a person to complete the task.

Contd
 The best way for a manager to use verbal persuasion is through the Pygmalion effect or the Galatea effect  The Pygmalion effect is a form of self-fulfilling prophecy in which believing something to be true can make it true  The Galatea effect occurs when high performance expectations are communicated directly to an employee

Reinforcement Theory
 Reinforcement states that behavior is a function of its consequences.  Consequences that immediately follow a behavior and increase the probability that the behavior will be repeated are called reinforcers.  Reinforcement theory focuses on the impact of external environmental consequences on behavior.
Law of effect behavior. impact of type of consequence on future

Operant conditioning: Developed by B.F. Skinner. Applies law of effect to control behavior by manipulating its consequences.

Operant conditioning strategies

Positive reinforcement
Increases the frequency of a behavior through the contingent presentation of a pleasant consequence.

Negative reinforcement
Increases the frequency of a behavior through the contingent removal of an unpleasant consequence.

Punishment
Decreases the frequency of a behavior through the contingent presentation of an unpleasant consequence.

Extinction
Decreases the frequency of a behavior through the contingent removal of an pleasant consequence.

Contd
 Successful implementation of positive reinforcement is based on
Law of contingent reinforcement

Reward delivered only if desired behavior is exhibited.

Law of immediate reinforcement

More immediate the delivery of a reward, the more reinforcement value it has.

Contd
 Guidelines for using positive reinforcement: Clearly identify desired work behaviors. Maintain a diverse inventory of rewards. Inform everyone about what must be done to get rewards. Recognize individual differences when allocating rewards. Follow the laws of immediate and contingent reinforcement.  Guidelines for using punishment: Tell the person what is being done wrong. Tell the person what is being done right. Match the punishment to the behavior. Administer punishment in private. Follow laws of immediate and contingent reinforcement.

Job Design Theory

 Job design refers to the way tasks are combined to form complete jobs.  Managers should design jobs deliberately and thoughtfully to reflect the demands of the changing environment and employees skills, abilities and preferences in order to motivate employees  There are two ways to design a job 1. Job Enlargement 2. Job Enrichment

Job Design Theory (contd)

 Job Characteristics Model - Identifies five job characteristics and their relationship to personal and work outcomes

Skill variety Task identity task significance Autonomy Feedback

The Job Characteristics Model

Job Design Theory (contd)

Skill Variety The degree to which a job requires a variety of different activities. Task Identity The degree to which the job requires completion of a whole and identifiable piece of work. Task Significance The degree to which the job has a substantial impact on the lives or work of other people.

Job Design Theory (contd)

Autonomy The degree to which the job provides substantial freedom and discretion to the individual in scheduling the work and in determining the procedures to be used in carrying it out.

Job Design Theory (contd)

Feedback The degree to which carrying out the work activities required by a job results in the individual obtaining direct and clear information about the effectiveness of his or her performance.

Computing a Motivating Potential Score

People who work on jobs with high core dimensions are generally more motivated, satisfied, and productive. Job dimensions operate through the psychological states in influencing personal and work outcome variables rather than influencing them directly.

Equity Theory ( J.Stacey Adams)

Individuals compare their job inputs and outcomes with those of others and then respond to eliminate any inequities.

Equity Theory (contd)

Equity theory is focused on :

Distributive Justice Perceived fairness of the amount and allocation of rewards among individuals. Procedural Justice The perceived fairness of the process to determine the distribution of rewards.

Expectancy Theory
Expectancy Theory (Victor Vroom) The strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends on the strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual.

Expectancy Theory Relationships

 EffortPerformance Relationship
The probability that exerting a given amount of effort will lead to performance.

 PerformanceReward Relationship
The belief that performing at a particular level will lead to the attainment of a desired outcome.

 RewardsPersonal Goals Relationship

The degree to which organizational rewards satisfy an individual s goals or needs and the attractiveness of potential rewards for the individual.