The Development of Education in Korea : Past Achievement and Current Challenges

Chong Jae Lee Seoul National University

Background paper for the East Asia Study Tour for Senior African Education Policy Makers Organized by World Bank on June 19-23, 2006

. Introduction Purposes
Overview Korean approach to past development and current challenges in education sector Identify key policy choices that help explain how educational development patterns contribute to the successful economic growth in Korea Highlight key lessons learned from Korean development over past six decades

. Setting the stage: where we started in 1945

In 1945
Educational attainment level of Korea population
13+ years population: 15 million Never attendance: 12.3 million (79.8%) Elementary education and more: 1.9 million (8.3%)

Enrollment Ratio of elementary education(6-12yrs)

1945: 64.0% 1948: 74.8%

Enrollment Ratio of Secondary education: 3.2%

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. Setting the stage: where we started in 1945

Policy tasks and choices

Develop modern school system Expand the access to education Reduce illiteracy (10 million)

Development of school system: Access, Relevance and International standards

Six years compulsory elementary education Two level of secondary education: Middle and High school Single Track Multiple forms of higher education institutions Dual mode of teacher education Special schools for adult learners 6-3-3-4 Single track system
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. Challenges and Main Policy Choice Key Stages

1948~1960 : Reconstruction 1961~1980 : Education for Economic growth 1981~2000 : Search for New Paradigms 2000~Present : Restructuring

Characteristics by Key Stages

Challenges to Education Major concerns Policy Choice Resources and tools

How education contributes economic growth?

1960
Population (Millions) GNI per capita (US$) Unemployment rate (%) Labor force (Millions) Labor force Participation rate (%)
24

1970
32

1980
38

1990
43

1997
46

1998
46

2000 2004
47 48

80

650

2,324

7,751

10,363

6,843

9,675

12,646 3.4 (2003) 23 (2003) 61.4 (2003)

11.7

4.4

5.2

2.4

2.6

6.8

4.1

10

14

19

21

21

22

30.8%

47.6

59.0

60.0

62.2

60.5

60.7

Source: Gwang-Jo Kim, VET in South Korea: Policy Response to Changing World, p. 6.
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Evolution of the Korean Education System, 1948Present (1)

Focus by Periods 1948~1960
Reconstruction

1961~1980
Ed for Eco. Growth

1981~2000
Search for New Paradigm of Educational Development

2001 ~Present
Restructuring

Challenges to Education Major Concerns Policy Choice

Compulsory Education

Secondary Education for All Supply for Technical manpower

Universalization of Higher Education

Lifelong learning HRD

Access to Opportunity

Growth of Quantity, Efficiency and control

Quality Autonomy Accountability

Competitiveness in Globalization knowledge-society

Universal

compulsory education

Expansion and Equalization of secondary education

Decentralized local autonomy of Education Expansion of Higher Education

Restructuring Higher Education

Support Research

productivity Regional development HRD, L-L

Evolution of the Korean Education System, 1948Present (2)

Focus by Periods 1948~1960
Reconstruction

1961~1980
Ed for Eco. Growth Technical Vocational education & training

1981~2000
Search for New Paradigm of Educational Development

2001 ~Present
Restructuring Quality improvement of Public schools Coordinated approach to HRD

Policy Choice

Reconstruction of educational infrastructure

Quality Improvement

Resources or Tools

Using Foreign Assistance

5 Years planning long-term planning Law of Local education financing fund established Foreign loans to support TVET

PCER: Presidential Commission for Education Reform Education Reform (1995)

Educational and Financial Support for Higher Education (BK, Nuri, Post BK)

How education contributes economic growth?

Human Resources Development with Rapid and sequential expansion of elementary, secondary and higher education in advanced economic growth and development. Expansion and upgrading of TechnicalVocational education.

Special support to improve the conditions of compulsory elementary school

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How education contribute economic growth?

Harbison & Myers's observation: Korean expanded secondary education to the level of per capita GNP $380, when its per capita GDP was $ 107.

Enrollment rate of Secondary Education

KOREA

$ 107
10

$ 380

Per Capita GDP

How education contribute economic growth?

Sequential expansion of access to education from Elementary, Secondary and Higher Education in advance corresponded well to the manpower needs for Economic development
Elementary Ed. Secondary Ed. (1960s) Vocational-Technical High schools (1970s 1980s) Expansion of Higher Education (1980s Present) Labor Intensive light Manufacturing Capital Intensive Heavy-Chemical Industry Electronics, High-tech Knowledge Industry

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How education contribute economic growth?

Expand and upgrade Technical and Vocational Education and Training Infrastructure to develop technical manpower
1960s : Vocational High school Jr Technical Colleges Technical Universities 1970s : Science Education Use of External Loans (IDA, IBRD etc)

As part of 5 Years Economic Development Plan Compulsory Elementary School condition improved
Special budget support from Economic Development Account Large class size reduced
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How we expand access to Education? Development Approach to Korean Education : Major Policies
Six-year Compulsory Education plan (1954-1959) Abolition of Entrance Exam to Middle School (1968) High School Equalization Policy (1974) July 30 Educational Reform (1980)

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How we expand access to Education? Six-year compulsory education plan(1954-1959)

Context In 1945, the enrollment rate of elementary education was below 50%
Policy Measure Six-year compulsory education plan(19541959): gradual provision of free compulsory education Low cost approach

Lowering educational standards (Large class, Double shift classroom) Relying on private schools to accommodate more students
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How we expand access to Education? Abolition of Entrance Exam to Middle School in 1964 Egalitarian approach: Achieving uniform equality
Lowering educational standards: class size from 60 to 70 Gradual extension of free compulsory education to middle school from rural areas in 1984 to all area in 2004 Relying on private schools to accommodate more students.

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How we expand access to Education? High School Equalization Policy in 1974

Context Severe competition for entrance to academic high schools resulted in private tutoring

Policy Measure To ease the competition and private tutoring to prepare entrance exams to selective academic high schools, high school equalization policy(HEP) formulated in 1974. Abolished entrance examination to high schools and replaced it with state-wide qualification exam (more than 90% could pass) Assign those passed the Qualification exam randomly to one of any high school from cluster of high schools. Private high schools are included in high school cluster. As the case of middle schools, government had to subsidize private high school
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How we expand access to Education? July 30 Educational Reform, 1980 Context

The excessive competition in the college entrance examination brought the added burden on the expenses for private education. Excessive competition for the entrance exam Overheated private tutoring

Policy Measure:
Prohibition of private tutoring Expand the admission quota to college and university. The abolition of entrance examination administered by universities and introduce national level examination.
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How we expand access to Education? Quantitative expansion of Secondary Education School Enrollment Rate:
Primary Middle High School School School Tertiary 69.8 96.4 92 36.6 20.3 5.4 97.7 73.3 48.8 11.4 100.5 91.6 79.4 23.6 97.2 95 89.4 52.5 97.7 91.9 90.1 61.7
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1951 1959 1970 1980 1990 2000 2004

Source: KEDI, Statistical Yearbook of Education 2004

How we expand access to Education? Quantitative expansion of Secondary Education Advancement Rate:

1970 1980 1990 2000 2004

Primary Middle High School Middle High School Tertiary 66.1 70.1 26.9 95.8 84.5 27.2 99.8 95.7 33.2 68.0 99.9 99.6 68 99.9 99.7 81.3

Source: KEDI, Statistical Yearbook of Education 2004

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How we expand access to Education? Quantitative expansion of Secondary Education Distribution of Educational Attainment of Population over 25 years old(%)
year Primary Graduate and Below Middle School Graduate High School Graduate Jr College Graduate University Graduate and over 1970 73 12 10 1 4 1980 55 18 19 1 7 1990 33 19 34 2 12 2000 23 13 40 8 16

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Evolution of Technical-Vocational Education & Training

TVET System
Vocational-Technical High Schools Jr Technical Colleges (2-3 years) Universities Open Technical Colleges for Employed Public Job-training centers under Ministry of Labor Private Technical training industries (Nurse-aid, etc)

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Evolution of Technical-Vocational Education & Training Evolution 1960~1980, Education for Economic Growth Period Policy priority given to TVET during implementation of Economic development plan since 1962 Expansion of Vocational High Schools: 1962~1980

Expand the Technical programs in Jr. Tech College and Universities System Development

Insert Table (Korean 60yrs) Curriculum development (1963) Specialized Technical High School with Mechanical focus Increase Investment and use loan programs (ICA, IDA, ADB, World Bank)

National Technical Qualification and Certification system (1974) Establish KRIVET: Korean Research Institute for Vocational Education and Training Recognize Corporate training program as degree certificate program
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Evolution of Technical-Vocational Education & Training

Identity of Technical-Vocational High Schools questioned : 1990s Weak Incentive system of semi-skilled job (Pay, promotions, working conditions) Less opportunities for occupational growth, Lifelong learning and HRD Directions for development of VH, not clear Students preference higher education to vocational high school

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Evolution of Technical-Vocational Education & Training

Evaluation Remarks on TVET in Korea

Technical-Vocational High Schools

Remarkable contribution in 1960s-1970s As Korean economy utilizes new technologies, T-V high schools face questioning of identity

Jr. Technical Colleges and Science-Engineering programs of Universities play important roles of HRD in 1980s-2000 TV High school: vacancy rate(12%), dropout(5%), Advance to Tertiary(50%)
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Evolution of Technical-Vocational Education & Training

Evaluation Remarks on TVET in Korea

New Perspectives needed for HRD through LifeLong-Learning(LLL) at Individual and Institutional level
Individual level: developing growth-capacities HRD through Life-long learning Upgrade qualification & Certification Career-development path

Institutional Level: Developing Relevance, Quality, Competitiveness, Market control model Use Public Support in the Voucher Form
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Evolution of Technical-Vocational Education & Training

Evaluation Remarks on TVET in Korea New Policy tasks emerged

Upgrade and transform vocational high schools into Diversified-specialized Elite Vocational Schools Strengthening functional relationship among general high schools, vocational high schools and Jr. Technical Colleges Develop Private technical institutes and OJT Centers in corporations as specialized technical institute

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. Development of Factors determining the Quality of Education - Factors

(1) Trade-off between quantity expansion and quality maintenance

Quantity

A
Quality

Resource Constraints Unit cost Low cost approach increase the Quantity Cost Missing learning(A) > Cost caused with poor quality(B) Stepwise approach
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. Development of Factors determining the Quality of Education - Factors

(2) Teacher Training

We upgraded Elementary school teacher training program step by step Normal High School + Temporary training institute 2 Years Teachers College (1962) 4 Years Teachers College (1982) Some Concerns Affecting the performance of Teachers Teaching Job is the most attractive job Union of teachers influence on policy matter Professional development of Teachers: Empowerment, Job Enrichment
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. Development of Factors determining the Quality of Education - Factors

(3) Development and Effective use of Textbooks

During Korean War and Reconstruction Period(1950-60), Textbook printed with UNKRA assistance low quality and free distribution Even Compulsory education, parents pay textbooks Free of charge policy extended from low income areas and group of students to all gradually.

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. Development of Factors determining the Quality of Education - Factors

(5) Role of ICT

E-learning system plays very important role in self-directed learning

Provide alternative low-cost private tutoring to students who cannot attend high quality cramming institute in Seoul E-learning system video program on demand connected with Education TV/ Internet

On the Job Training/ Credue the largest elearning training company

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. Development of Factors determining the Quality of Education - Factors

Government Budget vs MOE Budget

(unit: billion won, %)
Government budget(A)1)
1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 0.2 28 42 95 446 1,587 5,804 12,275 22,689 54,845 93,937 134,370

MOE budget(B)2)
0.1 2 6 15 78 228 1,099 2,492 5,062 12,496 19,172 27,982
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B/A
5.7 9.4 9.50 15.2 16.2 17.6 14.4 18.9 19.9 22.3 22.8 20.4 20.8

Total public educational expenditures

Ratio to GDP

2,732 4,600 8,524 19,215 31,087 49,525

5.6 5.5 4.6 4.8 5.4 6.2

. Development of Factors determining the Quality of Education - Factors

(6) Financing Education Household contribution to Education Financing: Tuition and Fees In 2005, Public expenditure on Education
From Government Household Tuition Total
Elementary Middle High School Jr. College University Total

27,982 (Billion won) 21,000 (42.2%) 49,982 Billion

14,486 8,362 9,651 3,306 13,519 49,982

(30.0%) (16.7%) (19.3%) (6.6%) (27.0%)

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. Development of Factors determining the Quality of Education - Factors

(6) Financing Education Ratio of Teachers Salaries with 15 years experience in 2000 to per capita GDI
(Unit $ based on PPP) Primary Salary(A) GNI(B) A/B 43,952 10,841 4.05 4.04 4.04 Middle 43,800 High 43,800

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. Development of Factors determining the Quality of Education - Factors

(6) Financing Education Per Capita Cost of Public Expenditure on Education(2000)

(Unit $ based on PPP) Korea US Japan Finland

Elementary Ed
Secondary Ed Higher Ed

3,155
4,069 6,118

6,995
8,855 20,358

5,507
6,266 10,914

4,317
6,094 8,244

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Institutional Aspects As a graduate of Normal High School and elementary school teacher, his commitment and support to:
Expanding compulsory education Vocational technical education and training Special schools and classroom established in industrial centers for working youth Extension compulsory education to Middle school (in the context of comparison between South and North Korea, which introduced 11 years compulsory education in 1971)

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Institutional Aspects

(2) Roles of R&D Institute in Educational Development

Established national R&D Center to develop knowledge base for national development in 1970s
KDI : Korea Development Institute KIST: Korea Institute of Science and Technology KEDI: Korean Educational Development Institute

In Education
KEDI: Educational development KICE: Curriculum and Evaluation KRIVET: Vocational Education and Training KERIS: Educational Research and Information services

Major Functions
R&D, Planning, Development Projects, Evaluation
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. Current Educational Issues

Human Qualities Required in Knowledge Based Society

High Level Cognitive Process Self-Control, Responsibility, Independency Creativity Self-Directed Learning Capability Voluntary Initiatives Individuality Intrinsic values and Social capital development

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. Current Educational Issues Policy Shift

Transition Stage in 1990's: Search for New Vision of Educational Ideals, New Priority & New Strategies Policy Shift in the governance of educational system proposed by the Presidential Commission for Educational Reform (PCER) From Quality to quantity From Administrative accountability to Performance based accountability From Bureaucratic regulation and control to Autonomy From professional control, democratic control to market control From Equality to Equality + Excellence From Provider to Consumer orientation
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. Current Educational Issues New policy framework with choice, accountability, and autonomy
Performance-Based Accountability:
Undefined Performance?

Top Down Change Policy-Program

- National Curriculum - Centralized Mgt.

Choice:
Charter Schools Korean Model(?)

Autonomy: Assignment
HEP (Korea) Busing (US) Bottom-Up Change - Program (Magnet) - Personnel - Budget

Procedural
Administrative Accountability

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. Conclusion Korean Model of Expanding Access with

Low-cost approach Bottom-up approach Egalitarian approach

Has recommendable strategic points. Economic growth provide stable financial

resources for Educational development.

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. Conclusion Quality of High School Education has to be reexamined

Concept of authentic achievement to be developed Core competences to be defined: Core in Diversity Development of specialized Elite vocational education institute: GH include Vocational Component VH include General Foundation

Selection system for admission to Higher Education to be

developed Students learning portfolio Universitys autonomy of defining the selection criteria
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