,3$

>

>@

>-'@>',u'u,@
>-''u-'@

Navi
First, Cameron wanted the language to sound
alien but pleasant and appealing to audiences.
Second, since the storyline included humans
who have learned to
speak the language, it had to be a language
that humans could plausibly learn to speak.
And finally, the actors would
have to be able to pronounce their Navi
dialogue without unreasonable difficulty
Free word order
Case: tripartite
Number: singular, double, plural
Gender : masculine or feminine
No definiteness
verb: tense, aspect, mood?
inflection:
TAM after the first consonants
affection before the last coda
created by Paul Frommer,
a professor at the
Marshall School
of Business with a
doctorate in linguistics.
conlangs
Engelangs
Auxiliary languages
Artlangs
one might design an engelang so that the
arrangement of sounds in a
word classifies its meaning; or so that its
grammatical structure imitates formal logic; or
so that its expressions
conform to a certain ideology or point of view
one might design an engelang so that the
arrangement of sounds in a
word classifies its meaning; or so that its
grammatical structure imitates formal logic; or
so that its expressions
conform to a certain ideology or point of view
designed to help ease communication
between two or more linguistically diverse
communities. They
use simple phonology and grammar to try to
ensure that they are easy to learn.
Language acquisition
origin

E'' -''-
(u,''- -,-'', -''-

%'' -u,-
&-''

vu'.
-''
-''-,,'u,
>

-',u
P. ,v. ,'. '--E','-u,v-,

+vP,E- "-'

YY Pu,-
-P-u'-
,u-' Pu,
,,
-
'- , -,u-
$'

Ev 'uYu'Y. ----' u-P- ,'Yu - ,,-- E, ' ''- ,Y - Yu ''u,v'-- -u - 'P- E -'Y
''u,'u,
3,
%
7--
-u'u, -, -
<
/,'u,

&-u''-E-
-'Y',

<v,'--'. --E-

UG principles and parameters
No error correction?
Critical period
Ungrammatical pidgin to a rich creole
Emergentism?
Cognition?
the
categories and distinctions of each language
enshrine a way of perceiving,
analyzing, and acting in the world
Dani (a tribe in New Guinea) had little
trouble learning the English set of color
categories, despite having only two
words for colors in their language
(Heider, 1972; Rosch, 1975, 1978; but
see Lucy & Shweder, 1979; Kay & Kempton,
1984).
Slobin (1987, 1996) has suggested that
language may influence thought during
thinking for speaking. Languages force us to
attend to certain aspects
of our experience by making them
grammatically obligatory. Therefore,
speakers of different languages may be biased
to attend to and encode different
aspects of their experience while speaking. In a
similar vein, Hunt and
Agnoli (1991) reviewed evidence that language
may influence thought by
making habitual distinctions more fluent.
When describing bounded motion, English
speakers typically use verbs that convey
information about manner (e.g., slide, skip,
walk)
rather than path (e.g., approach, ascend),
whereas Greek speakers do the opposite. We
investigated
whether this strong cross-language difference
influences how people allocate attention
during motion perception. We compared eye
movements from Greek and English speakers
as
they viewed motion events while (a) preparing
verbal descriptions or (b) memorizing the
events
Does language guide event perception?
Evidence from eye movements
Anna Papafragou a,*, Justin Hulbert b, John
Trueswell c
During the verbal description task, speakers
eyes rapidly focused on the event components
typically encoded in their native language,
generating significant cross-language
differences
even during the first second of motion onset.
However, when freely inspecting
ongoing events, as in the memorization task,
people allocated attention similarly regardless
of the language they speak.
cross-linguistic
differences in the object-substance distinction
in Yucatec Mayan and Japanese
(e.g., Gentner & Imai, 1997; Lucy, 1992),
effects of grammatical gender
distinctions in Spanish (Sera, Berge, & del
Castillo, 1994), cross-linguistic
differences in spatial thinking (e.g., Bowerman,
1996; Levinson, 1996), and
evidence suggesting that language influences
conceptual development (e.g.,
Markman & Hutchinson, 1984; Waxman &
Kosowski, 1990).
Language influence
Abstract domains, like time
Not physical, like colours?
Just as in Greek, Russian lexicon separates light
and dark blue
golyboi, and sinyi respectively
categories of language can affect performance
of basic perceptual color
discrimination tasks.(Winawer and Witthoft
and Frank and Wu and Wade and Boroditsky)
The Theory that lexicon affects color
perception was first suggested by Kay and
Kempton. The
researchers speculated that because the
English language expresses the colors green
and blue
separately, they will have a greater Just
Noticeable Difference16 in between the two
shades than
a Mexican Tarahuma speaker. This research
suggests that speakers who differentiate color
through different lexicon will perceive the
physical worldview differently.
Relational worldview
for levels of formality between two speakers
develop the
hierarchical view of relations in a society, an
abstract relationship. It has been postulated
that the
presence of hierarchical differentiation and
social discrepancy subconsciously provokes
social
divergence (Liberman). Although Taiwan is
similar to Southern Korea in culture, and
traditions,
Heesook Kim argues that South Korea has
featured more social conflicts. South Korean
honorifics
prevent people from seeing each other on
equal footing with one another, (Heesook
Kim)
suggesting that the Korean speakers views of
their relationship to one another are affected
by
their language.
Heesook Kim, "What would
Sapir and Whorf talk about the
social conflicts in the South
Korean Society" [sic], in
[Eoneohag -- Journal of the
Linguistic Society of Korea],
No. 40, December 2004
Physical
Peter Gordons study of the impoverished
number systems11 in the language of the
Piraha tribe
of Brazil suggests that the absence of the
number system may result in the inability to
count.
Gordons test required native Pirahas to
duplicate a series of simple patterns, for
instance an
array of batteries. The results showed that the
Piraha were able to successfully replicate sets
of
two or three objects, but performed
miserably on more complicated sets
containing more than
three things (Harrison 186).

Gender
Boroditsky conducted a test to verify that language influences
perception. In one instance, Spanish and German speakers
were each asked to describe the image that came to mind
when thinking of a bridge. In Spanish the bridge is classified
under the masculine case; however, in German the same object
is classified under the feminine case. This classification defines
the results of Boroditskys experiment. While the Spanish used
terms like strong, sturdy, towering to describe the bridge,
Germans used beautiful, elegant,
[and] slender.(Krulwich) These results strongly suggest that the two
speakers of different
languages perceive the same bridge in different ways because of
their linguistic classification.
gender
In Russian, the
ship is feminine: Korable, In German it is
masculine: Schiff. The Russian speakers tended
to
characterize the depicted ship as light, airy,
toy-like, small, middle-sized
whereas the Germans called it big, huge,
strong, fast,
undefeatable.
gender
In French, Russian and
German, the river is feminine, while in Italian,
it is masculine. The French,
Russian and German were more likely to
answer the question by describing the
river as calm, gracious, beautiful, relaxing,
peaceful, pretty, serene,
inspiring, romantic. The Italians, on the other
hand tended to describe it as
noisy, cold, fast, indestructible, strong,
untamable,
impetuous.
View
I believe that the meaning of a lot of words change according to the
person using them. It is the human mind that defines concepts, the
series of experiences that lead to a certain idea or a state of mind
are unique to that individual and cannot be understood, not in the
same sense, by another. For those who have shared common
experiences (i.e. those who have lived in the same country), their
minds work pretty much the same way and it's easier for them to
understand each other. So I think it's more about the shared
experiences than the languages themselves, which is what creates
languages in the first place. It's really the other way around -
Ukrainians have two different words for cherries because they have
a greater variety of cherries in their country, or because their way
of living requires them to distinguish between the two types of
cherries, for one reason or another.
In English, we only have one word for love
which carries many
notions of higher and lower level love. An
ancient Greek speaker
would have understood the concept of agape,
receiving
unconditional love (i.e. forgiveness the first
time you ask) by one
word. Having a word strengthens the belief
that something exists.
Language is a powerful tool in influencing our
world view.
Cause-effect
On the Non-Uniformity of Asian Thinking (for
Speaking): A Response to Masuda and Nisbett
Nigel Duffield and Yayoi Tajima
University of Sheffield and Keio University
These results
clearly show that Japanese is the exception in
this task, as predicted by its grammatical
typology

Description
memory
temperature
In this project, certain translations of the
English lexical term warm into French were
examined to determine their ranges of
meaning. The purpose of doing so was two-
fold: 1) to
verify that there is in fact no single equivalent
word for the lexical term warm in French,
and
2) to determine if there were certain situations
in which one possible translation of warm is
more likely to be used than other possible
translations.
GETTING WARM(ER)
AN INVESTIGATION INTO LINGUISTIC
RELATIVITY AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE IN
THE TRANSLATION OF THE ENGLISH
LEXICAL TERM WARM INTO FRENCH
Words will always contain different nuances in
different languages,
whether it be due to the etymology of the
word, through its evolved meaning in slang,
because of
the plethora or lack of possible synonyms, or
for whatever reason. As Saussure (1913: 651)
expressed, if words did stand for pre-existing
concepts, then they would all have exact
equivalents in meaning in different languages
While it is at least
theoretically possible that any meaning can be
expressed in any language, the expression of
that
meaning will probably not be without some
differences, which could result in failure to
communicate crucial and/or cultural
information: not everything that can be said
in one
language can be said (without additions and
subtractions) in another (emphasis added)
(Wierzbicka 1992: 20).
initially the concept is
nothing, that is only a value
determined
by its relations with other
similar values, and that
without them the
signification would not exist
(1913: 651).
But in all these cases, the thought
was there. Language gave a way to label it.
Language did not create it.
Reply to Lera Boroditsky
How Language Shapes Thought
(Scientific American, February 2011)1
Russell G. Schuh
UCLA Department of Linguistics
It just gave you a way to label a distinction that
you
hadnt thought about before or hadnt had a
label for

Sapir Whorf Redux: what

might just be right about
Linguistic Relativity?1
Nigel Duffield
University of Sheffield
February 2011
FL fuculty of language - LAD,
genetically determined
It is a coherent and perhaps correct proposal
that the language faculty constructs a
grammar only in conjunction with other
faculties of mind (Chomsky 1975)
UG = apriori knowledge of language
FL can be
UG (grammatical propositional content)
Learning Algorithms
Semantic Content
Psychology
a
Concept making, learning
abstraction
association
Value judgment
A 2008 study by the
University of Michigan indicated that while
humans experience desire and fear as
psychological opposites, they
share the same brain circuit.[7] A 2008 study
entitled "The Neural Correlates of Desire"
showed that the human brain
categorizes any stimulus according to its
desirability by activating three different brain
areas: the superior
orbito-frontal, the mid-cingulate, and the
anterior cingulate cortices.[8]
Emotion
motivation (desire)
mentalese
(1) thought is independent of language (or
other communicative behavior) but is actually
couched in its own internal language,
mentalese;
(2) knowing a language is knowing how to
translate mentalese into strings of words and
vice versa, so linguistic determinism can be
restated as claiming that our mentalese is (or is
similar to?) our language.
Thoughts have to be communicable to count
as thoughts.
But why over-reach by claiming that those
mechanisms (as currently hypothesized) have
an exotic reality as tacit knowledge and secret
thoughts in a private language that we never
knew we knew?
mentalese
According to M, language is not a tool for
thinking but merely a tool for translating my
mentalese into yours. As a tool for
understanding the world, language, in M, is
like a pair of eyeglasses. At best, language can
help us to see more clearly the abstractions
that we can already see without language. In
S, language is like an extensible toolkit: a pair
of eyeglasses, a microscope, a telescope, and a
lens-making tool. Language not only clarifies
what we could understand by other means,
but lets us see things that are beyond our
genetic cognitive reach and even programs our
nonsyntactic understanding to extend our
intuition. This is the misrepresentation of M
that I mentioned in the opening paragraphs.
M asserts that syntactically determined
cognitive reach is a proper subset ofgenetically
determined cognitive reach as shown in Figure
1.
S asserts that they are intersecting sets as
shown in Figure 2.
S,we can talk about the syntactically
determined and the learned-intuitive
extensions of cognitive reach. S asserts that
both of these extensions are dependent on
particular components of the syntax of the
native languages of monoglots.
Genetically
determinned
cognitive reach
Syntactically
determined
cognitive reach
Genetically determined
cognitive reach
Syntactically
determined
cognitive
reach
, Critical period
Genie
Didnt learn to speak?
Emotional scar?
Genie had not yet learned full grammatical
English and only went so far as phrases
like "Applesauce buy store."However, Jones
contends that her linguistic skills have been
underestimated
Genie is the pseudonym
for a feral child who spent
nearly all of the first
thirteen years of her life
locked inside a
bedroom strapped to a
potty chair. She was a
victim of one of the most
severe cases of social
isolation ever
documented
Greenbergs linguistic universals
S precedes O
SOV = postpositional
Verb with gender, number = also tense, mood
Gender = number exists
Number and case = Noun, number, case.
Unsolved problems
Origin of language
Language acquisition, nature or nurture
LAD
Animals and language, syntax

*' ,'-P ,''u ,'' ,''-u ,'

' -'v-, -'',,, -''' -''P -'vPE -''
)' '-, 'v '' '', ''P-, '' '' '- ' ',
'u, ',,' 'u' - -' ,
- -' -v, -' -'P,
-, -,--P -,v -,v -,-u -,-' -,'u'
''' ', --
'-, , ''
'', ,'-P
'- ,'P, ,'
Bouba/kiki experiment repeated in 2001
by Ramachandran[
- Master Recherche en Sciences Cognitives -
Universit Paris Descartes - EHESS - ENS
Exploring the bouba/kiki effect:
a behavioral and fMRI study
Nathan Peiffer-Smadja
Master 2 Thesis 2009-2010
Under the supervision of:
Pr. Laurent Cohen
Neuropsychology and Neuroimaging
CRICM /
The shape of boubas: soundshape
correspondences in toddlers
and adults
Daphne Maurer,
1
Thanujeni Pathman
1,2
and Catherine J. Mondloch
3
Like adults, children as young as 2.5 years old
showed
the bouba/kiki phenomenon
Stress-timed vs. Syllabletimed
Languages
Marina Nespor
Mohinish Shukla
Jacques Mehler
ACROSS-LANGUAGE PERSPECTIVE ON SPEECH
INFORMATION RATE
FRANOIS PELLEGRINO CHRISTOPHE COUP
Singing in a Tone Language: Shona
Murray Schellenberg
University of British Columbia
Maddieson
11> 2.4
5 30.9
4 8.5
3 5.4
I 91.5
A 88.0
U 83.9
/a/>/i/>/u/>/e/>/o/
U
arabic
/a, i, u/

syllable

'-u,

'uu'-. vu,-'-u E ,''-

-vE----u.
allophone
Sonority
([a] > [e o] > [i u] > [r] > [l] > [m n] > [z v d] > [s
f ] > [b d ] > [p t k])

telepathy
The Role of Language in Telepathic
CommunicationGebhard von Blucher and
Moira Daugherty
Natural order, sov, gesture
We found that the word orders
speakers used in their everyday
speech did not influence their
nonverbal behavior. Surprisingly,
speakers of all four languages used
the same order and on both
nonverbal tasks. This order, actor
patientact, is analogous to the
subjectobjectverb pattern found
in many languages of the world and,
importantly, in newly developing
gestural language
Susan Goldin-Meadow * , , Wing Chee So ,
Asl zyrek , , , and Carolyn Mylander *
Nouns and verbs
Learning nouns activates the left fusiform
gyrus, while learning verbs switches on other
regions (the left inferior frontal gyrus and part
of the left posterior medial temporal gyrus)
the brain imaging showed that new nouns
primarily activate the left fusiformgyrus (the
underside of the temporal lobe associated with
visual and object processing), while the new
verbs activated part of the left posterior
medial temporal gyrus (associated with
semantic and conceptual aspects) and the left
inferior frontal gyrus (involved in processing
grammar).
Historical
1,008 were SOV -- The man the bear killed
770 were SVO -- The man killed the bear
164 were VSO -- Killed the man the bear.
40 were VOS -- Killed the bear the man.
16 were OVS --The bear killed the man.
13 were OSV -- The bear the man killed.
Language appears to have come into being
about 50,000 years ago. The first anatomically
modern humans appeared in Africa about
200,000 years ago, but "for the first 150,000
years
they acted like Neanderthals," says Ruhlen.
"Then suddenly 50,000 years ago, everything
changed."
Many researchers believe that the new thing
that turned anatomically modern humans into
modern humans was a fully developed
language.
Merritt Ruhlen and Murray
Gell-Mann, at Stanford University and the
Santa Fe Institute respectively
Alignment
Morphology
The following articles describe various mechanisms of word formation:
Agglutination (the process of forming new words from existing ones by adding affixes to them, like shame + less + ness
shamelessness)
Back-formation (removing seeming affixes from existing words, like forming edit from editor)
Blending (a word formed by joining parts of two or more older words, like smog, which comes from smoke and fog)
Acronym (a word formed from initial letters of the words in a phrase, like English laser from light amplified by stimulated
emission of radiation)
Clipping (morphology) (taking part of an existing word, like forming ad from advertisement)
Calque (borrowing a word or phrase from another language by literal, word-for-word or root-for-root translation; for
example the English phrase to lose face, which is a calque from Chinese)
Semantic loan (the extension of the meaning of a word to include new, foreign meanings)
Compound (linguistics) (a word formed by stringing together older words, like earthquake)
Incorporation (linguistics) (a compound of a verb and an object or particle, like intake)
Conversion (linguistics) (forming a new word from an existing identical one, like forming the verb green from the existing
adjective)
Neologism (a completely new word, like quark)
Loanword (a word borrowed from another language, like clich, from French)
Onomatopoeia (the creation of words that imitate natural sounds, like the bird name cuckoo)
Phono-semantic matching (matching a foreign word with a phonetically and semantically similar pre-existent native
word/root)
Eponym (a proper noun that becomes commonly used for an idea it is associated with, usually by changing its part of
speech, like Xerox or Orwellian)
Degree of synthesis
Inflection
Polysynthetic language
Chukchi
An example from Chukchi, a polysynthetic, incorporating, and
agglutinating language:
Tmeylevtptrkn.
t--mey--levt-pt--rkn
1.SG.SUBJ-great-head-hurt-PRES.1
'I have a fierce headache.' (Skorik 1961: 102)
Temeyngelevtpeterken has a 5:1 morpheme-to-word ratio with 3
incorporated lexical morphemes (mey 'great', levt
'head', pt 'ache').
Classical Ainu
From Classical Ainu, another polysynthetic, incorporating, and
agglutinating language:
Usaopuspe aeyaykotuymasiramsuypa.
usa-opuspe a-e-yay-ko-tuyma-si-ram-suy-pa
various-rumors 1SG-APL-REFL-APL-far-REFL-heart-sway-ITER
'I wonder about various rumors.' (lit. 'I keep swaying my heart afar and
toward myself over various rumors'.)
(Shibatani 1990: 72)
polysynthetic
languages are highly
synthetic languages,
i.e., languages in
which words are
composed of many
morphemes.
Whereas isolating
languages have a
low morpheme-to-
word ratio,
polysynthetic
languages have
extremely high
morpheme-to-word
ratios.
Fusional language
A fusional language (also called inflecting
language) is a type of synthetic language,
distinguished from
agglutinative languages by its tendency to
overlay many morphemes in a way that can be
difficult to segment.
Examples of fusional Indo-European languages
are Sanskrit, Greek (classical and modern),
Latin, Lithuanian,
Russian, German, Polish, Slovak and Czech.
Another notable group of fusional languages is
the Semitic languages
group. A high degree of fusion is also found in
many Sami languages, such as Skolt Sami.
Semitic root
The roots of verbs and most nouns in the Semitic languages are characterized as a
sequence of consonants or "radicals" (hence also the term consonantal root). Such
abstract consonantal roots are used in the formation of actual words by adding the vowels
and non-root consonants (or "transfixes") which go with a particular morphological
category around the root consonants, in an appropriate way, generally following specific
patterns. It is a peculiarity of Semitic linguistics that a large majority of these consonantal
roots are triliterals (although there are a
number of quadriliterals, and in some languages also biliterals).
S-l-m
Shin-Lamedh-Mem
Aramaic:

-L-M
Arabic: S-L-M
Hebrew: -L-M
Maltese: S-L-M
Is the triconsonantal root of many Semitic
words, and many of those words are used as
names. The root itself
translates as "whole, safe, intact".
In Arabic:
salm"Peace"
as-salmu alaykum"Peace be
upon you"
Islm"submission, entrusting one's
wholeness to another"
muslim"One who submits"
taslm"receiving SLM" to receive a
salutation or
becoming submitted
mustaslim"wanting to receive SLM"
no longer
seeking opposition/conflict, the one who is
submitted
slim"subject of SLM" its SLM, "the
vase is SLM", "the
vase is whole/unbroken"
musllam"undisputed"
Christianity: in the rosary: as-
salmalayki y
Maryam"Hail Mary".
Semantics, pragmatics
Sassure
not positively, in terms of their
content, but negatively by contrast with other
terms in the same system (tr. Harris 83
Categorisation
Conceptual clustering is a modern variation of
the classical approach, and derives from
attempts to explain how
knowledge is represented. In this approach,
classes (clusters or entities) are generated by
first formulating their
conceptual descriptions and then classifying
the entities according to the descriptions. The
classical Aristotelian view claims that
categories are discrete entities characterized
by a set of properties which
are shared by their members.
Prototype theory is a mode of graded
categorization in cognitive science, where
some members of a category are
more central than others. For example,
when asked to give an example of the
concept furniture, chair is more
frequently cited than, say, stool.
George Lakoff
Conceptual
categories are not identical for different
cultures, or indeed, for every individual in
the same culture.
Verb inflection, uncommon
Apart from the better-known and common inflectional categories,
the following categories proved to have verbal inflectional reflexes
in at least one language: nominalizers, connectives or switch-
reference markers (as in Belhare, Kiowa, Fijian, Daga, Maricopa),
inverse marking (as in Cree, Mapudungun or Chukchi) or Kartvelian-
style version, honorificity (as in Japanese or Korean), pluractionals
and other quantificational categories (multiple argument or
multiple action, as in Wichita and Koasati, or repetition marking, as
in Karok), verb focus or emphasis (as in Maricopa, Pirah or
Imonda), transitivity markers (as in Fijian, Cree, Krongo, or Hakha
Lai), reciprocal affixes (triggered by agreement with free reciprocal
pronouns, as in Chamorro), construct marking (indicating the
presence of a dependent NP, as in Hausa, Lango, and Supyire),
object classifiers (inflectional if interacting with agreement, as in
Imonda), nonspecific reference-marking (in Koasati), scope
(delimiting the scope of other categories, as in Mezquital Otom),
deixis (judged inflectional in, e.g., Lango because it interacts with
agreement paradigm rules) and motion (judged inflectional in
Yagua and Imbabura Quechua).
Sentence final
Sentence-final particles, including modal particles,
interactional particles, etc., are minimal lexemes (words) that
occur at the end of a sentence and that do not carry
referential meaning, but may relate to linguistic modality,
register or other pragmatic effects. Sentence-final particles are
common in the Chinese languages, including particles such as
Mandarin le , ne , ba , ou , a , la , ya , and ma
/, and Cantonese lo and ge. These particles act as
qualifiers of the clause or sentence they end. Sentence-final
particles are also present in Japanese and many East Asian
languages, such as Thai, and especially in languages that have
undergone heavy Sino-Tibetan influence, such as the Monguor
languages.
Speech act
1.Locutionary act
2.Illocutionary act
3.Perlocutionary act psychological consequences, the effect of 2 through 1
Dore (1975) proposed that
children's utterances were
realizations of one of nine primitive
speech acts:
1. labelling
2. repeating
3. answering
4. requesting (action)
5. requesting (answer)
6. calling
7. greeting
8. protesting
9. practicing
Searle (1975) has set up the following
classification of illocutionary speech acts:
assertives = speech acts that commit a
speaker to the truth of the expressed
proposition, e.g. reciting a creed
directives = speech acts that are to cause
the hearer to take a particular action, e.g.
requests, commands and
advice
commissives = speech acts that commit a
speaker to some future action, e.g. promises
and oaths
expressives = speech acts that express the
speaker's attitudes and emotions towards the
proposition, e.g.
congratulations, excuses and thanks
declarations = speech acts that change the
reality in accord with the proposition of the
declaration, e.g. baptisms,
pronouncing someone guilty or pronouncing
someone husband and wife
Implicature is a technical term in the pragmatics subfield of
linguistics, coined by H. P. Grice, which refers to what
is suggested in an utterance, even though neither expressed nor
strictly implied (that is, entailed) by the utterance
For example, the sentence "Mary had a baby and got married"
strongly suggests that Mary had the baby before the
wedding, but the sentence would still be strictly true if Mary had
her baby after she got married. Further, if we add
the qualification "not necessarily in that order" to the original
sentence, then the implicature is cancelled even
though the meaning of the original sentence is not altered.
Nonverbal communication
"no more than 30 to
35 percent of the
social meaning of a
conversation or an
interaction is carried
by the words."
(Birdwhistell, 1985:
158)
Figure of speech
Variety
Variety
User
(dialects)
Regiolect
Sociolect
Ethnolect
Age
Idiolect
Ecolect
Pidgin
creole
Diglossia
Use
(diatype)
Register
Style
Jargon
Legalese
Motherese
Argot
Grammatology
Writing systems
Abjads (consonant alphabets)
Alphabets
Syllabic alphabets
Syllaberies
Pictgrams, Idiophones
Leet
Martian language
Martian language (Chinese: ;
pinyin: huxng wen; literally "Martian
script": ) is the nickname
of unconventional representation of Chinese
characters online.
1. A character which is a homophone
2. A character which looks similar
3. A character with a similar radical
4. A character with the same or similar
meaning
5. The Latin script, Cyrillic, hiragana,
bopomofo, katakana, the IPA, other unicode
symbols, SMS language, etc.
Martian language
bu

*
d
d;
*
d
Simplified Chinese

Fishscales
ULOG
Color honey
Colourbet

LAD

word-formation
word-order
word-synthesis
declention number person gender case
conjugation TAM voice agreement, honorific
implicature

variety