Chapter 11

Chapter 11
The Cost of Capital
Copyright 2009 Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.
Learning Goals
1. Understand the key assumptions, the basic concept, and the specific sources of capital associated with the cost of capital. 2. Determine the cost of long-term debt and the cost of preferred stock. 3. Calculate the cost of common stock equity and convert it into the cost of retained earnings and the cost of new issues of commons stock.
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Learning Goals (cont.)

4. Calculate the weighted average cost of capital (WACC) and discuss alternative weighting schemes. 5. Describe the procedures used to determine break points and the weighted marginal cost of capital (WMCC). 6. Explain the weighted marginal cost of capital (WMCC) and its use with the investment opportunities schedule (IOS) to make financing and investment decisions.
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An Overview of the Cost of Capital

The cost of capital acts as a link between the firms long-term investment decisions and the wealth of the owners as determined by investors in the marketplace. It is the magic number that is used to decide whether a proposed investment will increase or decrease the firms stock price. Formally, the cost of capital is the rate of return that a firm must earn on the projects in which it invests to maintain the market value of its stock.
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The Firms Capital Structure
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Some Key Assumptions

Business Riskthe risk to the firm of being unable to cover operating costsis assumed to be unchanged. This means that the acceptance of a given project does not affect the firms ability to meet operating costs. Financial Riskthe risk to the firm of being unable to cover required financial obligationsis assumed to be unchanged. This means that the projects are financed in such a way that the firms ability to meet financing costs is unchanged. After-tax costs are considered relevantthe cost of capital is measured on an after-tax basis.
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The Basic Concept

Why do we need to determine a companys overall weighted average cost of capital?
Assume the ABC company has the following investment opportunity: - Initial Investment = $100,000 - Useful Life = 20 years - IRR = 7% - Least cost source of financing, Debt = 6% Given the above information, a firms financial manger would be inclined to accept and undertake the investment.
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The Basic Concept (cont.)

Why do we need to determine a companys overall weighted average cost of capital?
Imagine now that only one week later, the firm has another available investment opportunity - Initial Investment = $100,000 - Useful Life = 20 years - IRR = 12% - Least cost source of financing, Equity = 14% Given the above information, the firm would reject this second, yet clearly more desirable investment opportunity.
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The Basic Concept (cont.)

Why do we need to determine a companys overall weighted average cost of capital? As the above simple example clearly illustrates, using this piecemeal approach to evaluate investment opportunities is clearly not in the best interest of the firms shareholders. Over the long haul, the firm must undertake investments that maximize firm value. This can only be achieved if it undertakes projects that provide returns in excess of the firms overall weighted average cost of financing (or WACC).
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Specific Sources of Capital: The Cost of Long-Term Debt

The pretax cost of debt is equal to the the yield-to-maturity on the firms debt adjusted for flotation costs. Recall that a bonds yield-to-maturity depends upon a number of factors including the bonds coupon rate, maturity date, par value, current market conditions, and selling price. After obtaining the bonds yield, a simple adjustment must be made to account for the fact that interest is a tax-deductible expense. This will have the effect of reducing the cost of debt.
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Specific Sources of Capital: The Cost of Long-Term Debt (cont.)

Net Proceeds
Duchess Corporation, a major hardware manufacturer, is contemplating selling $10 million worth of 20-year, 9% coupon bonds with a par value of $1,000. Because current market interest rates are greater than 9%, the firm must sell the bonds at $980. Flotation costs are 2% or $20. The net proceeds to the firm for each bond is therefore $960 ($980 - $20).
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Specific Sources of Capital: The Cost of Long-Term Debt (cont.) Before-Tax Cost of Debt The before-tax cost of debt can be calculated in any one of three ways:
Using cost quotations Calculating the cost Approximating the cost
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Specific Sources of Capital: The Cost of Long-Term Debt (cont.) Before-Tax Cost of Debt
Using Cost Quotations When the net proceeds from the sale of a bond equal its par value, the before-tax cost equals the coupon interest rate. A second quotation that is sometimes used is the yield-to-maturity (YTM) on a similar risk bond.
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Calculating the Cost This approach finds the before-tax cost of debt by calculating the internal rate of return (IRR). As discussed in earlier in the text, YTM can be calculated using: (a) trial and error, (b) a financial calculator, or (c) a spreadsheet.
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Calculating the Cost
11-15

Before-Tax Cost of Debt
Calculating the Cost
11-16
Approximating the Cost
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Find the after-tax cost of debt for Duchess assuming it has a 40% tax rate:
ri = 9.4% (1-.40) = 5.6%
This suggests that the after-tax cost of raising debt capital for Duchess is 5.6%.
11-18
Specific Sources of Capital: The Cost of Preferred Stock
Duchess Corporation is contemplating the issuance of a 10% preferred stock that is expected to sell for its $87-per share value. The cost of issuing and selling the stock is expected to be $5 per share. The dividend is $8.70 (10% x $87). The net proceeds price (Np) is $82 ($87 - $5). rP = DP/Np = $8.70/$82 = 10.6%
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Specific Sources of Capital: The Cost of Common Stock

There are two forms of common stock financing: retained earnings and new issues of common stock. In addition, there are two different ways to estimate the cost of common equity: any form of the dividend valuation model, and the capital asset pricing model (CAPM). The dividend valuation models are based on the premise that the value of a share of stock is based on the present value of all future dividends.
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Specific Sources of Capital: The Cost of Common Stock (cont.)

Using the constant growth model, we
rS = (D1/P0) + g
We can also estimate the cost of common equity using the CAPM:
rE = rF + b(rM - rF).
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Specific Sources of Capital: The Cost of Common Stock (cont.) The CAPM differs from dividend valuation models in that it explicitly considers the firms risk as reflected in beta. On the other hand, the dividend valuation model does not explicitly consider risk. Dividend valuation models use the market price (P0) as a reflection of the expected risk-return preference of investors in the marketplace.
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Although both are theoretically equivalent, dividend valuation models are often preferred because the data required are more readily available. The two methods also differ in that the dividend valuation models (unlike the CAPM) can easily be adjusted for flotation costs when estimating the cost of new equity. This will be demonstrated in the examples that follow.
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Specific Sources of Capital: The Cost of Common Stock (cont.) Cost of Retained Earnings (rE)
Constant Dividend Growth Model
rs = D1/P0 + g For example, assume a firm has just paid a dividend of $2.50 per share, expects dividends to grow at 10% indefinitely, and is currently selling for $50.00 per share. First, D1 = $2.50(1+.10) = $2.75, and rS = ($2.75/$50.00) + .10 = 15.5%.
11-24

Cost of Retained Earnings (rE)
Security Market Line Approach rs = rF + b(rM - rF). For example, if the 3-month T-bill rate is currently 5.0%, the market risk premium is 9%, and the firms beta is 1.20, the firms cost of retained earnings will be: rs = 5.0% + 1.2 (9.0%) = 15.8%.
11-25
Specific Sources of Capital: The Cost of Common Stock (cont.) Cost of Retained Earnings (rE)
The previous example indicates that our estimate of the cost of retained earnings is somewhere between 15.5% and 15.8%. At this point, we could either choose one or the other estimate or average the two. Using some managerial judgment and preferring to err on the high side, we will use 15.8% as our final estimate of the cost of retained earnings.
11-26
Specific Sources of Capital: The Cost of Common Stock (cont.) Cost of New Equity (rn)
Constant Dividend Growth Model
rn = = D1/Nn - g Continuing with the previous example, how much would it cost the firm to raise new equity if flotation costs amount to $4.00 per share? rn = [$2.75/($50.00 - $4.00)] + .10 = 15.97% or 16%.
11-27
The Weighted Average Cost of Capital

WACC = ra = wiri + wprp + wsrr or n Capital Structure Weights
The weights in the above equation are intended to represent a specific financing mix (where wi = % of debt, wp = % of preferred, and ws= % of common). Specifically, these weights are the target percentages of debt and equity that will minimize the firms overall cost of raising funds.
11-28

One method uses book values from the firms balance sheet. For example, to estimate the weight for debt, simply divide the book value of the firms long-term debt by the book value of its total assets. To estimate the weight for equity, simply divide the total book value of equity by the book value of total assets.
11-29

A second method uses the market values of the firms debt and equity. To find the market value proportion of debt, simply multiply the price of the firms bonds by the number outstanding. This is equal to the total market value of the firms debt. Next, perform the same computation for the firms equity by multiplying the price per share by the total number of shares outstanding.
11-30

Finally, add together the total market value of the firms equity to the total market value of the firms debt. This yields the total market value of the firms assets. To estimate the market value weights, simply dividend the market value of either debt or equity by the market value of the firms assets .
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For example, assume the market value of the firms debt is $40 million, the market value of the firms preferred stock is $10 million, and the market value of the firms equity is $50 million. Dividing each component by the total of $100 million gives us market value weights of 40% debt, 10% preferred, and 50% common.
11-32

Using the costs previously calculated along with the market value weights, we may calculate the weighted average cost of capital as follows: WACC = .40(5.67%) + .10(9.62%) + .50(15.8%) = 11.13% This assumes the firm has sufficient retained earnings to fund any anticipated investment projects.
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The Marginal Cost & Investment Decisions

The Weighted Marginal Cost of Capital (WMCC)
The WACC typically increases as the volume of new capital raised within a given period increases. This is true because companies need to raise the return to investors in order to entice them to invest to compensate them for the increased risk introduced by larger volumes of capital raised. In addition, the cost will eventually increase when the firm runs out of cheaper retained equity and is forced to raise new, more expensive equity capital.
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The Marginal Cost & Investment Decisions (cont.)

Finding Break Points
Finding the break points in the WMCC schedule will allow us to determine at what level of new financing the WACC will increase due to the factors listed above. BPj = AFj/wj where: BPj = breaking point form financing source j AFj = amount of funds available at a given cost wj = target capital structure weight for source j
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Assume that in the example we have been using that the firm has $2 million of retained earnings available. When it is exhausted, the firm must issue new (more expensive) equity. Furthermore, the company believes it can raise $1 million of cheap debt after which it will cost 7% (after-tax) to raise additional debt. Given this information, the firm can determine its break points as follows:
11-36

BPequity BPdebt = $2,000,000/.50 = $4,000,000 = $1,000,000/.40 = $2,500,000
This implies that the firm can fund up to $4 million of new investment before it is forced to issue new equity and $2.5 million of new investment before it is forced to raise more expensive debt. Given this information, we may calculate the WMCC as follows:
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WACC for Ranges of Total New Financing
Range of total New Financing $0 to $2.5 million Source of Capital Debt Preferred Common Weight 40% 10% 50% Cost 5.67% 9.62% 15.80% WACC 7.00% 9.62% 15.80% WACC 7.00% 9.62% 16.00% WACC Weighted Cost 2.268% 0.962% 7.900% 11.130% 2.800% 0.962% 7.900% 11.662% 2.800% 0.962% 8.000% 11.762%
$2.5 to $4.0 million
Debt Preferred Common
40% 10% 50%
over $4.0 million
Debt Preferred Common
40% 10% 50%
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11.76% 11.75% 11.66% 11.50% WMCC
11.25% 11.13%
$2.5
$4.0
Total Financing (millions)

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Investment Opportunities Schedule (IOS) Now assume the firm has the following investment opportunities available:
Initial Project A B C D E IRR 13.0% 12.0% 11.5% 11.0% 10.0% $ $ $ $ $ Ivestment 1,000,000 1,000,000 1,000,000 1,000,000 1,000,000 $ $ $ $ $ Cumulative Investment 1,000,000 2,000,000 3,000,000 4,000,000 5,000,000
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13.0% 12.0% 11.66% 11.5% C This indicates that the firm can accept only Projects A & B. D $1.0 $2.0 $2.5 $3.0 $4.0
A B
WMCC
11.13% 11.0%
Total Financing (millions)
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Table 11.4 Summary of Key Definitions and Formulas for Cost of Capital (cont.)
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Table 11.4 Summary of Key Definitions and Formulas for Cost of Capital
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Table 11.1 Calculation of the Weighted Average Cost of Capital for Duchess Corporation
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Table 11.2 Weighted Average Cost of Capital for Ranges of Total New Financing for Duchess Corporation
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Figure 11.1 WMCC Schedule
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Table 11.3 Investment Opportunities Schedule (IOS) for Duchess Corporation
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Figure 11.2 IOS and WMCC Schedules
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Chapter 11

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Chapter 11

The Cost of Capital

Copyright 2009 Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.

Learning Goals (cont.)

Copyright 2009 Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.

An Overview of the Cost of Capital

The Firms Capital Structure

Copyright 2009 Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.

Some Key Assumptions

Copyright 2009 Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.

The Basic Concept

The Basic Concept (cont.)

The Basic Concept (cont.)

Copyright 2009 Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.

Specific Sources of Capital: The Cost of Long-Term Debt

Copyright 2009 Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.

Specific Sources of Capital: The Cost of Long-Term Debt (cont.)

Copyright 2009 Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.

Copyright 2009 Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.

Copyright 2009 Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.

Copyright 2009 Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.

Copyright 2009 Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.

Specific Sources of Capital: The Cost of Long-Term Debt (cont.)

Copyright 2009 Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.

Copyright 2009 Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.

Specific Sources of Capital: The Cost of Long-Term Debt (cont.)

Specific Sources of Capital: The Cost of Preferred Stock

Specific Sources of Capital: The Cost of Common Stock

Copyright 2009 Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.

Specific Sources of Capital: The Cost of Common Stock (cont.)

Copyright 2009 Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.

Specific Sources of Capital: The Cost of Common Stock (cont.)

Specific Sources of Capital: The Cost of Common Stock (cont.)

The Weighted Average Cost of Capital

The Weighted Average Cost of Capital

The Weighted Average Cost of Capital

The Weighted Average Cost of Capital

The Weighted Average Cost of Capital

The Weighted Average Cost of Capital

The Marginal Cost & Investment Decisions

Copyright 2009 Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.

The Marginal Cost & Investment Decisions (cont.)

The Marginal Cost & Investment Decisions (cont.)

Copyright 2009 Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.

The Marginal Cost & Investment Decisions (cont.)

The Marginal Cost & Investment Decisions (cont.)

$2.5 to $4.0 million

Debt Preferred Common

40% 10% 50%

over $4.0 million

Debt Preferred Common

40% 10% 50%

Copyright 2009 Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.

The Marginal Cost & Investment Decisions (cont.)

Total Financing (millions)

The Marginal Cost & Investment Decisions (cont.)

Copyright 2009 Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.

The Marginal Cost & Investment Decisions (cont.)

Total Financing (millions)

Copyright 2009 Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.

Copyright 2009 Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.

Copyright 2009 Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.