0606-02 Quality Improvement Procedure Rev7-2

1
Quality Improvement
Procedure
March 2008
Quality Management Department
Quality Management Group
Sumitomo Wiring Systems, Ltd.
2
1. Two Types of Quality Control
Measures assuming
defects will occur
y Implementation of close inspections
y Free replacement of defective products
Measures to prevent
defect occurrence
(1) Quality of design
y QFD (Quality Functional Development)
y FMEA/FTA
y Design review
(2) Quality of manufacturing
y Standardization
y Factor management
(3) Quality of sales and services
y Improvement of service system
y Feedback of repair and complaint information
3

To simply prevent defective products from flowing to later processes, (1) To simply prevent defective products from flowing to later processes, (1)
will suffice, but to produce quality products at low cost, (2) is necessary. will suffice, but to produce quality products at low cost, (2) is necessary.
(1) (1) Quality assurance through Quality assurance through
inspections inspections
(Defective products are rejected (Defective products are rejected
in inspections) in inspections)
(2) (2) Quality building in processes Quality building in processes
(No defective products are (No defective products are
manufactured) manufactured)
Inspection
Nonconforming Nonconforming
products products
Production Production
processes processes

Shipping
Conforming Conforming
products products
Discard Discard
Feedback Feedback
of causes of causes

Processes are Processes are
maintained and maintained and
controlled. controlled.
Take measures for Take measures for
causes of defects in causes of defects in
each process. each process.
X
Production Production
processes processes
Conforming Conforming
products products
Shipping
The basics of quality control are to improve, maintain, and control
the conditions of production processes and minimize inspections.
1. Two Types of Quality Control 1. Two Types of Quality Control
Point! Point!
Man-
hours
Cost
4
Try to find
defects as if you
are a final
inspector.
From the SWS WAY, We
are a Professional
Manufacturing Group
y Assume that the Japanese
character is a defect.
y Circle as you find it
and count the number of
.
Limitations of Inspection Limitations of Inspection- -Based Quality Assurance Based Quality Assurance
5
Total
13 + 15 + 19 + 13 +
14+8 = 82 pcs.
Try to find defects
as if you are a final
inspector of W/H
assemblies.
From the SWS WAY1-1,
We are a Professional
Manufacturing Group
y Assume that the Japanese
character is a defect.
y Count the number of
or defects that you found.
?
6
Scientific Approach
QC story
Common Approach of Problem-Solving
Set a target
Collect all the necessary facts and opinions
Analyze, summarize, and plan (P)
Do (D)
Check the results (C) and return to (A)
1. Select a theme
2. Comprehend the current situation
3. Set a target
4. Plan activities
5. Analyze the cause
6. Consider measures
7. Implement measures
8. Check the effects
9. Maintain the control,
standardize the rule
10.Review the activities
and future goals
List the problems
Evaluate and narrow down (Q.C.D viewpoint)
Decide a theme
Collect data
Sort the data for solution finding
List the causes Investigate the causes
Extract the root cause
Plan the measures; evaluate and narrow down
Make an implementation plan (define 5W1H)
Collect data and check the performance
Evaluate the intangible effect
PDCA
7
What Are the QC 7 Tools?
1. Paretto graphs
2. Cause-and-effect
diagrams
3. Graphs
4. Check sheets
5. Histograms
6. Scatter diagrams
7. Control charts
QC 7 tools -- the statistical analysis tools
using graphs
Variance in quality
Cause of variance
(production 5Ms)
Man
Material
Machine
Method
Measurement
Manufacturing process
Data
sampling
It is important to select the adequate tool(s) for the purpose
Analysis
7 QC tools
8
Approach to Quality Improvement Approach to Quality Improvement
STEP 2
Condition/Status
analysis
STEP 4
Permanent solution
(maintenance and
control)
Narrow down target
items using Pareto
diagrams.
(1) Understand the
facts based on the
principles of actual
work site, actual
object, and reality.
(2) Analysis using
histograms and time
series graphs
Develop 5-why
analysis based on
the facts and plan
and implement
measures.
(1) Standardization
and observance of
standards
(2) Daily control
based on control
charts
STEP 3
Cause analysis and
measure planning
Identify critical factors related to defects
among many different factors.
Control critical
factors.
Find defect items
from which the
largest effect can
be expected.
STEP 1
Determining defect
items subject to
activities
9
3. STEP 1: Determining Defect Items Subject to Activities 3. STEP 1: Determining Defect Items Subject to Activities
STEP 1
Determining defect
items subject to
activities
STEP 4
Permanent solution
(maintenance and
control)
Narrow down target
items using Pareto
diagrams.
(1) Understand the
facts based on the
work site, actual
(2) Analysis using
histograms and time
series graphs
Develop 5-why
analysis based on
the facts and plan
and implement
measures.
(1) Standardization
and observance of
standards
(2) Daily control
based on control
charts
STEP 3
Cause analysis and
measure planning
Control critical
factors.
Find defect items
from which the
largest effect can
be expected.
STEP 2
Condition/Status
analysis
10
What is priority basis?
This principle is to select serious problems from multiple
problems and work on them by preference to produce the
maximum results by using limited resources (people, objects,
money, time, etc.) effectively.
Is priority basis necessary?
It is necessary to make good use of limited resources and
proceed with measures effectively to avoid a mountain in
labor situation.
For this purpose, those items and causes that affect the
results greatly should be identified and dealt with first.
STEP 1 Determining Defect Items Subject to
Activities
Priority basis
Selecting serious problems from multiple problems and
solving them by priority
11
The top 20% makes up 80% of the whole.
The priority of truly serious
problems becomes clear.
Background to Concept of Priority Basis
bParetto lawb
9
?9
49
9
89
199

9
?9
49
9
89
199
N
u
m
b
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r

o
f

d
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s

(
c
a
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s
)
C
u
m
u
l
a
t
i
v
e

r
a
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e

(
%
)
y Significance: The extent and degree of the influence are considerable.
y Trend of expansion: If left unresolved, the influence and degree of the
problem would expand.
y Degree of urgency: A serious outcome will result unless immediate
measures are taken.
Guideline for selecting serious problems
Q7: Pareto diagram
Unprocessed Interfusion Flaws Others
12
What is a "Pareto Diagram"?
P
r
o
c
e
s
s

A
P
r
o
c
e
s
s

D
P
r
o
c
e
s
s

C
P
r
o
c
e
s
s

E
P
r
o
c
e
s
s

B
100
80
60
40
20
0 0
110
220
330
440
550
[
T
i
m
e

(
s
e
c
o
n
d
)
]
N = 20 (average)
D
e
f
e
c
t

A
D
e
f
e
c
t

B
D
e
f
e
c
t

C
100
80
60
40
20
0 0
24
48
72
96
120
[
N
u
m
b
e
r

o
f

o
c
c
u
r
r
e
n
c
e
s
]
N = 120
D
e
f
e
c
t

D
D
e
f
e
c
t

E
D
e
f
e
c
t

F
O
t
h
e
r
s
Before improvement
After improvement
(1)Indicates what is the most important problem and what should become the focus.
(2)Used to confirm the effectiveness of measures.
[%]
[%]
1
3
Defect A
Defect B
Defect C
1
0
0
8
0
6
0
4
0
2
0
0
0 2
4
4
8
7
2
9
6
1
2
0
Number of occurrences (cases)
N

=

7
0
Defect D
Defect E
Defect F
Others
A
f
t
e
r

i
m
p
r
o
v
e
m
e
n
t
Defect A
Defect B
Defect C
1
0
0
8
0
6
0
4
0
2
0
0
0 2
4
4
8
7
2
9
6
1
2
0
Number of occurrences (cases)
N

=

1
2
0
Defect D
Defect E
Defect F
Others
B
e
f
o
r
e

i
m
p
r
o
v
e
m
e
n
t
C
o
m
p
a
r
i
s
o
n

o
f

b
e
f
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e

a
n
d

a
f
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r

i
m
p
r
o
v
e
m
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n
t

a
c
t
i
v
i
t
i
e
s
Cumulative rate (%)
Cumulative rate (%)
14
() Pareto Diagram Creation Procedure and Points to Note
Defect item
Defect A
Defect B
Defect C
Defect D
Defect E
Defect F
Defect G
Defect H
Defect I
Defect J
Defect K
Defect L
Defect M
Defect N
No. of
occurrences
46
34
10
7
5
5
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
Graph data
46
34
10
7
5
5
13
Accumulated no.
of occurrences
46
80
90
97
102
107
120
Ratio of accumulated no.
of occurrences
38.3%
66.7%
75.0%
80.8%
85.0%
89.2%
100%
Step 1 Collect data.
For creating graph
Step 2 Calculate data for creating graph.
y Limit the number of items to within 10.
An excessive number of items may disperse the results, making
priority items unclear.
Points to note
y Group items with small values in "Others."
However, be careful not to allow the ratio of "Others" to exceed 20% of the total.
Data for "Others" should be entered last.
Within 10 items
Group in
"Others"
15
D
e
f
e
c
t

A
D
e
f
e
c
t

B
D
e
f
e
c
t

C
100
80
60
40
20
0 0
24
48
72
96
120
[%]
[
N
u
m
b
e
r

o
f

o
c
c
u
r
r
e
n
c
e
s
]
N = 120
April 2002
D
e
f
e
c
t

D
D
e
f
e
c
t

E
D
e
f
e
c
t

F
O
t
h
e
r
s
Step 3 Draw the Pareto Diagram.
Points to note
y Use the right axis for
the ratios of the
accumulated totals.
y Clearly draw dots.
These dots should be
placed above the right
edges of the bars.
y Do not forget to
enter "0."
y Locate "Others" on the
far right, regardless of
the value.
y Enter the total number of
sets of data(N).
For time data, enter the
number of sampled pieces
of data.
y Do not forget to
enter "0."
y Draw the line of the
ratios of accumulated
totals from the "0" point.
Points to note
y Locate the point
indicating the number
of sets of data(N) and
the point
indicating"100%" on
the same level.
y Enter the period this
data was obtained.
Step 4 Determine items to be considered as problems.
Points to note
y Even when many classified items are presented, only two to
three items have an enough impact to require attention.
16
()
100
80
60
40
20
0 0
24
48
72
96
120
N = 120
April 2002
100
80
60
40
20
0 0
24
48
72
96
120
N = 120
April 2002
Data are all alike and thus important
items are not visible.
This can be caused by inappropriate
item setting or there being a problem
in data collection conditions.
D
e
f
e
c
t

A
-
A
D
e
f
e
c
t

A
-
B
D
e
f
e
c
t

A
-
C
100
75
50
25
0 0
23
47
70
94
D
e
f
e
c
t

A
-
D
O
t
h
e
r
s
When the same measures are
not appropriate for each priority
item, create a breakdown of this
item to indicate more specific
priority items (secondary
classification).
For example, when
classifying "Defect A (part
missing)" into secondary
categories: grommet missing,
clip missing, tube missing,
etc., it becomes easier to
examine specific measures.
Points to note
[%]
[
N
u
m
b
e
r

o
f

o
c
c
u
r
r
e
n
c
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s
]
[%]
[
N
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c
c
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n
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]
[%]
D
e
f
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c
t

A
D
e
f
e
c
t

B
D
e
f
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c
t

C
D
e
f
e
c
t

D
D
e
f
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c
t

E
D
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f
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c
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F
O
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r
s
D
e
f
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c
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A
D
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B
D
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f
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C
D
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f
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c
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D
D
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E
D
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F
O
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s
17
Step 5 Compare Pareto diagrams before and after measures are taken.
0
24
48
72
96
120
Defect A Defect B Defect C Defect D Defect E Defect F Others
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
0
12
24
36
48
Defect C Defect D Defect A Defect E Defect F Defect B Others
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
Before improvement
After improvement
Overall effectiveness
Effectiveness of
measures for B
Use the same color for the
same item bar.
N = 120
N = 48
Effectiveness of
measures for A
Points to note
18
Table Actual Defect Data
Replacement/repair
cost (yen)
Defect item
Number of
defective parts
Cost per
part
Total
Mislocation 110 300 33,000
Terminal deformation 75 1,800 135,000
Terminal backout 43 200 8,600
Incorrect crimping 31 2,000 62,000
Part missing 15 400 6,000
Others 26 300 7,800
Total 300 252,400
19
Number of defects Cumulative rate (%)
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
20
Cost of loss Cumulative rate (%)
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0 0
21
Incurred cost
Defect item
Number of defective
parts
Accumulated number
of defective parts
Ratio of accumulated
number of defective parts
Mislocation 110 110 36.7%
Terminal deformation 75 185 61.7%
Terminal backout 43 228 76.0%
Incorrect crimping 31 259 86.3%
Part missing 15 274 91.3%
Others 26 300 100.0%
Number of defective parts
Defect item
Amount of incurred
costs
Accumulated amount
of incurred costs
Ratio of accumulated
amount of incurred costs
Terminal deformation 135000 135000 53.5%
Incorrect crimping 62000 197000 78.1%
Mislocation 33000 230000 91.1%
Terminal backout 8600 238600 94.5%
Part missing 6000 244600 96.9%
Others 7800 252400 100.0%
22
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
Terminal
def ormation
Incorrect
crimping
Mislocation Terminal
backout
Part missing Others
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
Mislocation Terminal
def ormation
Terminal
backout
Incorrect
crimping
Part missing Others
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
Number of defective parts
Incurred cost (unit: 1,000 yen)
Ratio Accumulation
Terminal deformation:
25% of defective parts p54% of total cost
[
N
o
.

o
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d
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(
p
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23
Defect A of product a
produced with equipment (1)
Visual observation
9
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[Defect type]
[Product type]
[Equipment]
y Three Pareto
diagrams and
one eye
For defect reduction
a b c d e
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
24
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Examples of Pareto Diagrams Used for W/H Assembly Process
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499
49
July August September
October November
In-house occurrence
Occurrence other than in-house
Classified by
subassembly No.
(home worker)
Classified by defect item
Classified by
subassembly No.
- connector
Classified
by
connector
Secondary classification
for mislocation
25
14
4 4
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89
99
199
07/6
3.4%
115171
07/11
2.5%
171
70/
14
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49
9
9
9
89
99
199
07/6
3.4%
115171
07/11
2.5%
171
70/
14
4 4
9
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9
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49.4
48.1
.8 .8 .8 .8 .8
199.9
9
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9
9
9
89
99
199
07/6
3.4%
115171
07/11
2.5%
171
70/
(Case 1) Factor Identification Using Pareto Diagrams
Focused on
incorrect
dimension
Based on defect items
Frequently
occurred in
115 and 171
Defect rate
3.4% in
June 2007
Defect rate
2.5% in Nov.
2007
Reduced
Incorrect dimension of
unique block 171
eliminated
(7l0 case/month)
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In-depth identification on unique
blocks of defect occurrence
26

171mm
A
A

A
A

171mm
A
A

A
A
(Case 1)
Case of improvement: Unique block bent in L-shape changed to be
placed straight on clamp board
Fig. 3 (1)
Before
improvement
After
improvement
Fig. 3 (2)
Fig. 3 (3)
On clamp
board
Dimension of
171 mm on
board
Clamp
U-jig
Connector
The shape of
this unique
block is
changed to
straight.
Depending on wiring
conditions
Displaced outward
in U-jig
Displaced inward
in U-jig
Dimensional accuracy
improved.
Dimensions
between
clamps are
different.
27
Investigate the important item and classify it by secondary and tertiary
categories to narrow down activity targets.
Summary of Pareto Diagram Analysis Summary of Pareto Diagram Analysis
For W/H (example)
y Classify by defect item pby number of connector ways pby connector No.
pby address
Investigate to the level where you can
check the facts with actual products
and at the actual worksite.
This is the beginning of 5-Why Analysis.
Why has mislocation occurred at address
XX in connector No. ##?
Observing the actual products at the
actual worksite enables the
identification of root causes.
Why has mislocation occurred for
similar red wires?
Since there are many similar colors,
further classification is required to identify
the root causes by using actual products
at the actual worksite.
28
4. STEP 2: Phenomenon Analysis (Qualitative Facts)
STEP 3: Cause Analysis and Measure Planning
4. STEP 2: Phenomenon Analysis (Qualitative Facts)
STEP 3: Cause Analysis and Measure Planning
STEP 4
Permanent solution
(maintenance and
control)
Narrow down target
items using Pareto
diagrams.
(1) Understand the
facts based on the
work site, actual
Develop 5-why
analysis based on
the facts and plan
and implement
measures.
(1) Standardization
and observance of
standards
(2) Daily control
based on control
charts
STEP 3
Cause analysis and
measure planning
Control critical
factors.
Find defect items
from which the
largest effect can
be expected.
(2) Analysis using
histograms and time
series graphs
STEP 1
Determining defect
items subject to
activities
STEP 2
Condition/Status
analysis
29
Root Cause Identification
- Understanding Facts and 5-Why Analysis -
30
Problem solution (root cause identification) is difficult. Problem solution (root cause identification) is difficult.
Importance of Root Cause Identification Importance of Root Cause Identification
Example 1: Conversation between boss and employee
at a plant
Boss: Another same claim!
You have taken the measure, havent you?
Why did it happen again?
Employee : The measure might not be appropriate.
Boss: You mean that root cause analysis was
inadequate?
Employee: Yes, I suppose so What should we do?
31
Why does the problem reoccur? Why does the problem reoccur?
The cause determined was not the real cause.
The measure taken was not appropriate.
The problem reoccurred.

That is,
How to find solution for the problem = real cause
is the key point.
5-Why Analysis is a method
to help identify the root cause
32
Familiar Stories Familiar Stories
Defect details: Incorrect product number label
y The label was damaged during assembly.
y A non-Japanese inspector found this, replaced the label with
another, and shipped the product.
Familiar stories???
Cause: The non-Japanese inspector did not observe the abnormality
handling rule.
[Rule] Inspectors must inform the leader or substitute
before replacing the label, and follow his/her
instructions.
[Fact] The inspector replaced the label by him/herself.
pAgainst the rules
Measure:
1) Prepare operation instructions that non-Japanese people can
understand (only in Japanese until now).
2) Conduct thorough training regarding abnormality handling rules.
33
Familiar Stories What is the reality? Familiar Stories What is the reality?
Defect details: Incorrect product number label
y The label was damaged during assembly.
y A non-Japanese inspector found this, replaced the label with another, and shipped the product.
Cause: The non-Japanese inspector did not observe the abnormality handling rule.
pIt is a rule that they must inform the leader or substitute.
Measure:Prepare operation instructions that non-Japanese people can understand, and
conduct thorough training regarding abnormality handling rules.
When we investigated the reason why the inspector did not observe the
abnormality handling rule.
The inspector knew this rule! However
Unless measures are taken against this problem, the same problem may reoccur
even if rules are thoroughly instructed.
Preparation of operation instructions and training for abnormality handling rules are not
the measures against the root cause.
* Measures must also be taken at the assembly process where the label was damaged.
y The leader was not close by.
y Action to be taken when the leader is absent
was not determined.
y It was almost shipment time.
The rule
was not
observed.
34
-- See the facts. --
Key Points of Root Cause Identification Key Points of Root Cause Identification
1) 3-Gen (Real Place, Real Thing, Reality) Principle
To eliminate preconceived ideas, learn how to see the facts.
pMake a habit of looking at the facts by yourself!
2) 5-Why Analysis
To avoid leaps in logic, connect Cause and
Effect with Why.
pMake a habit of thinking about physical phenomena!
35
Ones own
knowledge
(1) Self-reflection
Experience, instincts, ideas,
thoughts (principles)
(2) Recall
Knowledge and experience
related to external matters
accumulated in the head
External
information
Being told by someone,
reading, sorting previous
data, discussions
(4) Seeking direct
information
Observation (qualitative),
measurement (quantitative)
Top priority
When a defect has occurred in a process, stop the line, immediately go to the actual
work site, immediately take a look at the actual item, immediately check the
situation (actual phenomenon), and take action or implement measures.
How to Look at Facts: Methods to Collect Information How to Look at Facts: Methods to Collect Information
A
m
o
u
n
t

o
f

i
n
f
o
r
m
a
t
i
o
n
R
e
l
i
a
b
i
l
i
t
y
(3) Seeking indirect
information
3-Gen Principle
(Actual-Worksite-Actual-Item Principle
and 3-Immediate & 3-Gen Principle
HAI-Q:When a defect occurs, the line is stopped and persons concerned
immediately gather on the spot to share facts.
36
A scene from typical detective drama:
Anthony, I am sure he is the criminal. Now, go and get him.
Make him come clean!
Despite the senior detectives order, the leading character
Anthony carefully observes the actual site of the crime, and
collects facts by asking around until he find the real criminal.
Facts or preconceived ideas?
Distorted common sense.
Should be and should not be.
Presumption goes around...
Seeing the Facts Is Really Difficult Seeing the Facts Is Really Difficult
37
38
(Question) Where was the post box ?
(Answers) y I dont know 35 %
y No answer. 3%
y Answered with a guess. 62 %
(Breakdown) y Uncertainly answered
(I think ) 23 %
y Certainly answered
(It was at ) 39 %
40% assertively answered the question, which they were not sure of
39
5-Why Analysis Connects Causes and Effects 5-Why Analysis Connects Causes and Effects
Effect
Cause = Effect
Cause = Effect
Cause = Effect
Why?
Why?
Phenomenon occurred.
Why?
Because phenomenon occurred.
To avoid leaps in logic
This systematic development is
5-Why Analysis.
Location of wires O and R for
connector No. 160 was incorrect.
Confused wire O with wire R.
(Why)
Operators determined which wire
they had in their hands based on
the wire length, without
confirming the wire color.
(Why)
Operators felt pressed because
operation was delayed.
(Why)
Time was taken to untangle
subassemblies because they got
tangled.
40
Generally, there may be
several possible causes
for a single phenomenon.
Confused wire O
with wire R.
The wires were seen
incorrectly.
Both wires were of the
same color, so it was
difficult to distinguish
them.
Location of wires O and R for connector No. 160 was incorrect.
The top and bottom
of the connector lock
was incorrect.
Wires O and R were in his/her
hand. The operator had a
preconceived idea that the
longer wire was wire O (did not
check the wire color).
Arrangement
before minor
changes was
applied.
The arrangement drawing
on the assembly board
was incorrect.
Did not check
the top and
bottom.
As you analyze why and why,
branches of possible causes spread
further and further.
q
We suggest the basic method of 5-
Why Analysis.
[5-Why Analysis STEP 1]
Collect Facts and Analyze Phenomenon before Thinking Why
[5-Why Analysis STEP 1]
Collect Facts and Analyze Phenomenon before Thinking Why
Did not check for
changes made to
arrangement.
Since wire R was off the
U jig, wire R was longer
in his/her hand.
Determining which wire the
operator had in his/her hand
based on the length is faster than
confirming the color.
The operator felt
pressed because
Time was taken to
untangle
subassemblies
because they got
tangled.
41
Confused wire O
with wire R.
The wires were seen
incorrectly.
Both wires were the same
hue, so it was difficult to
distinguish them.
The top and bottom
was incorrect.
Arrangement
before minor
changes was
applied.
The arrangement drawing
on the assembly board
was incorrect.
Did not check
the top and
bottom.
Did not check for
changes made to
arrangement.
in his/her hand.
based on the length was faster
than confirming the color.
The operator felt
pressed because
Time was taken to
untangle
subassemblies
because they got
tangled.
Dont Start with Why Dont Start with Why
Collect the facts and
clarify the phenomenon,
and then narrow down
the scope.
For example, if the operation
method (fact) caused confusion of
wires can be made clearer by
asking the operator.
You dont have to analyze
why for the other whys.
4W1H except for Why
Carefully collect the
relevant facts in terms
of Who, When, Where,
What, and How.
Analyze the
phenomenon before
analyzing the cause!!
Wire O
Wire R
42
[Step 2] Identify Causes Based on Facts
--- Streamlining with facts to cut branches
[Step 2] Identify Causes Based on Facts
--- Streamlining with facts to cut branches
Why was the
arrangement incorrect?
Confused wire O
with wire R.
The top and bottom
was incorrect.
X
Confused wire O
with wire R.
The top and bottom
was incorrect.
X
The wires were seen
incorrectly.
Wires O and R were in his/her hand. The
operator had a preconceived idea that the
longer wire was wire O (did not check the wire
color).
Since wire R was off the U jig,
wire R was longer in his/her hand.
X
Branching is
acceptable when there
are multiple causes.
5-Why Analysis
is a repeat of
these steps.
It is not necessary to
analyze why for cut
branches.
Were these facts? (1) is a fact and (2) is not a fact.
(2) (1)
pWhys?
43
Identify Root Cause Based on Facts Stepwise Identify Root Cause Based on Facts Stepwise
Confused wire O
with wire R.
Saw the wires
incorrectly.
The top and bottom
was incorrect.
The arrangement
drawing on the
assembly board was
incorrect.
X
X
X
in his/her hand.
based on the length was faster
than confirming the color.
The operator felt
pressed because
Time was taken to
untangle
subassemblies
because they got
tangled.
Dont skip, go
stepwise.
To avoid leaps in logic, move
down the stairs one by one.
44
Retrace branches for any leaps in
logic and confirm that items are
connected with Because.
A leap in logic exists in sections not
connected with Because.
[Step 3] Connect with Why and Verify with Because [Step 3] Connect with Why and Verify with Because
Confused wire O
with wire R.
The wires were seen
incorrectly.
The top and bottom
was incorrect.
The arrangement
drawing on the
assembly board was
incorrect.
in his/her hand.
based on the length is faster than
confirming the color.
The operator felt
pressed because
Time was taken to
untangle
subassemblies
because they got
tangled.
X
X
X
Why
Because
45
When conducting 5-Why Analysis for mistakes at the worksite where many
manual operations are performed:
y It is difficult to collect the facts.
y There are many cases where decisive factors are not found.
pCheck the facts based on the Actual-Worksite-Actual-Item Principle, and
extract factors that may cause defects. We may have to conduct 5-Why
Analysis based on assumptions to some extent.
[Mislocation]
When: Did something occur then?
Operation was delayed, so the operator became nervous?
pWhy? pOperator had to untangle a tangled subassembly.
This delayed operation.
Where: Is the insertion position and direction of the connector
appropriate? Is the color of these wires the same?
y Assume all factors that may cause or induce mistakes.
y Examine the factors assumed ultimately and take measures!
pHowever, this is difficult work.
Therefore understanding phenomenon of the defect is important.
Mistakes in Manual Operations Mistakes in Manual Operations
46
(Operation rules that may cause mistakes)
y There are many items operators must
determine or check by themselves.
y Setting depends on the skill of operators.
y Operators must conduct multiple
operations simultaneously.
Operation system
Standardize operations.
Simplify operations.
Implement hardware measures
(including fool-proof devices)
Flow production, one-piece
production and flow, one
operation for one product
number, First-In First-Out
(Not always perfect)
y See or hear incorrectly
y Forget easily
y Action (hands/feet) differs from
thinking (mind).
Human behavior
Education, training, OJT
training, reminders/cautions,
award system
Human Error Factors and Measures Human Error Factors and Measures
47
Human Error Factors and Measures Human Error Factors and Measures
Indirect factors
Operational and environmental
rules that may induce:
Ideal root cause identification
y Mistakes
y Feeling of pressure
Extract the defect occurrence possibility
based on the Actual-Worksite-Actual-Item
Principle, and take measures
Direct factors
Conventional root cause identification
Education, training,
OJT training,
reminders/cautions
y Omit checks
y See or hear incorrectly
y Misunderstand
y Forget easily
48
Company Standard Proactive and Recurrence
Prevention of Human-Error Quality Problems
QC-CW-114 (Established on March 1, 2007)
Elimination of elements that may lead to human-error quality problems
(proactive prevention)
Eliminate elements that may lead to human-error quality problems by improving
processes and standards.
Eliminate elements related to indirect factors
(P.33).
Company standard
5-1. Items to implement in production preparation stage
5-2. Items to implement in process control
Points of view to identify the
elements that may cause a
problem
Items to implement upon occurrence of human-error quality problems
(recurrence prevention)
When such a quality problem occurs, trace back to the management factors to
remove the root of the problem, including indirect factors.
Company standard 6. Items to implement after a quality
defect occurs
Sheet
49
Review Sheet for Zero Defects in Human-Involved Operation
Regarding each item
in 5-1 and 5-2.
Extract issues by checks
(actual worksite and object)
Summarize measures and
actions (plan)
50
Factors that induce human errors (1) Factors that induce human errors (1)
[Operation method and details]
(1) Operations that may cause defects
1) Operations determined by operators
2) Operations relying on operators experience and skills
3) Operations performed with operation/inspection procedures entrusted to operators
(standards not arranged)
4) Difficult operations
5) Operations that are not realistic (cannot be performed or observed)
6) Operations with elements of Muri (overburden), Mura (unevenness), and Muda
(waste), that hamper smooth operation
7) Multiple operations (assembly and transfer, handling multiple lines, supervising and
operation, etc.)
8) Operations that require mutual cooperation between adjacent processes
[Infrastructure (1)]
(1) Operational environment that may cause defects
1) Normal/abnormal cannot be determined due to insufficient 4S.
2) Storage location and inventory standard are unclear.
3) Similar components or finished products are stored adjacently.
4) Operators cannot be viewed due to stacked returnable containers or high equipment.
5) Operation areas are dark or dirty.
51
[Infrastructure (2)]
(2) Processes that may cause defects
1) Confusion with similar products is not adequately assumed in process design, and
number control is not performed.
2) Actual operation situation and past problems are not reflected in process design
(difficult-to-work process layout and equipment structure).
3) Continuous normal operation is difficult due to frequent stoppage.
4) Machines in use cannot assure conforming products (insufficient process capabilities,
machine deterioration, etc.).
5) Foolproof devices are not installed (important characteristics, defects rarely found in
subsequent processes, defects that cannot be avoided by human determination, etc.).
6) Foolproof devices lack reliability (incorrect detection, frequent malfunction).
(3) Inadequacy of standards, gages, and jigs
1) Operation procedures, quality check standards, and pass/fail criteria are not prepared
(including preparation for non-Japanese operators).
2) Inspection devices, jigs, and gages are not controlled.
3) Reliability of inspection is insufficient (inadequate operation procedures, insufficient
inspection time, poor operation environment, inadequate inspection tools, inspection
relying on visual check).
52
[Management and training (1)]
(1) Rules not established
1) No rules for handling abnormalities
2) No rules for handling defective products
3) No rules when leaving the operation line
4) No rules for FIFO (first-in, first-out)
5) No rules for inspecting the initial and last products in a lot, and others
(2) Worksite environment that may cause defects
1) Worksite where 4S are not thoroughly conducted
2) Worksite where rules for handling abnormalities are not observed
3) Worksite unable to control changes
4) Worksite constantly exposed to changes (equipment failure, change of personnel, delivery period, etc.)
5) Worksite management with insufficient personnel (operators, supervisors)
6) Worksite unable to respond to drastic increase in production volume
7) Worksite where operators are exhausted due to high load or overtime work
8) Worksite full with complaints of operators
(3) Training system not established
1) Allocation of inadequate personnel
2) Assignment of new operators without training
3) Only verbal training
4) Training system in which subjects to be taught are not determined (no training materials)
5) Training without checking understanding level (the purpose is simply doing)
6) Lack of operators awareness and quality (evaluation remains the same even if done or not done)
7) No check system after new operators are assigned
53
[Management and training (1)]
(4) Inadequate management
1) Inadequate daily management by managers/supervisors/leaders
(control items unknown)
2) Periodical operation observation not implemented by managers/supervisors/leaders
3) Changes not controlled
4) Worksite management without discipline
(overlooked even when rules are not observed)
5) Management materials not prepared (defect data, map of dropped products,
production results, etc.)
6) No system to collect opinions from worksites and reflect them in operations
7) State of worksites not visual (lack of visualization, state of objects unknown)
(5) Inadequate maintenance
1) Periodic checks not conducted
2) Daily check not conducted (including check of foolproof devices)
3) Scheduled maintenance not implemented
[Others]
1) Startup of new product without operation training and check (no milestone control)
54
Elimination of elements that may lead to human-error quality problems
(proactive prevention)
Eliminate elements that may lead to human-error quality problems by improving
processes and standards.
Eliminate elements related to indirect factors
(P.33).
Company standard
5-1. Items to implement in production preparation stage
5-2. Items to implement in process control
Points of view to identify the
elements that may cause a
problem
Items to implement upon occurrence of human-error quality problems
(recurrence prevention)
When such a quality problem occurs, trace back to the management factors to
remove the root of the problem, including indirect factors.
Company standard 6. Items to implement after a quality
defect occurs
Sheet
55
Root Cause Identification Sheet for Human-Error Problems Root Cause Identification Sheet for Human-Error Problems
Standards
Keywords to identify root cause
(1) Were there any similar defects in the past?
(2) Were there any difficult operations in the past?
(3) Have you ever experienced close calls?
(4) Were any difficult operations reported?
(5) Were there any operations conducted without fully
understanding procedures or rules?
(6) Were there any changes (5M) immediately before a
problem occurred?
To identify root cause
All the persons mentioned below must identify the root cause:
y The person who made the mistake
y Persons involved that could not prevent the mistake
y Persons involved that could not find the mistake
Defective products or
components
Equipment failure, temporary
stoppage
Defective tools and jigs
Change in environment (shelves,
indications, illumination, etc.)
Change in system or tooling
(emergency response, etc.)
Operation delay
Helping for other operators
Talked to by someone during
operation
Preconceived ideas
Insufficient concentration
Incorrect determination
Incorrect operation
Carelessness
Incorrect memory
Poor physical condition
Physical factors
Human factors
Physical factors
Human factors
(1st step) (2nd step ) (3rd step ) (4th step ) (5th step )
There are
standards.
Defective products or components
Equipment failure, temporary
stoppage
Defective tools and jigs
Change in environment (shelves,
indications, illumination, etc.)
Change in system or tooling
(emergency response, etc.)
Operation delay
Help for other operators
Talked to by someone during operation
Preconceived ideas
Insufficient concentration
Incorrect determination
Incorrect operation
Carelessness
Incorrect memory
Poor physical condition
Operators did
not know the
standards
Instructor did
not teach
operators
Had no time to teach subject
Does not know how to teach subject
Had no intention of teaching subject
Forgot to teach subject
Did not know they had to teach subject
Assumed subject had been taught
Importance placed on production
(no time allowance, etc.)
There is no teaching system (or it is not known)
There are no teaching materials
Not clear who they should teach
Did not teach comprehensively.
Did not teach certain people.
Instructor
taught
operators
Operators were taught but
they forgot
Operators could not
understand
Operators were taught
incorrectly
Does not feel necessary. Reasons were not explained
Did not understand reasons
Insufficient
understanding
Did not teach according to
the operators level
Insufficient support
after teaching
Misunderstood
Insufficient teaching time
Made mistakes
Insufficient understanding
Teaching was not specific
Teaching skill was poor.
Instructors understanding was incorrect
Poor teaching skills
Had preconceived ideas
Operators
knew the
standards
Observed
but caused
defect
Deficiency in standards or system Omission of operation points Insufficient pre-examination
Faulty tools and jigs Not reported
Reported but only tentative
measures were taken
Reported but not accepted
Insufficient communication
There were difficult or
hard-to-judge operations Not reported
Reported but only tentative
measures were taken
Reported but not accepted
Insufficient communication
Did not observe With external influences
(situation where
standards could not be
observed)
Without external
influences
(standards could have
been observed)
56
Summary: Points of 5-Why Analysis Summary: Points of 5-Why Analysis
Investigation of root cause of defects (complaints)
Prevention of recurrence
Purpose:
Points of 5-why analysis
(1) Perceived notions
(preoccupation)
(2) Leap in logic
(1) Gather the facts and analyze
phenomenon (actual work site and
object) before thinking why.
(2) Investigate causes based on the
facts.
(3) Link the facts with why in a chart
and verify them with because.
Obstacles in root
cause investigation
57
STEP 4
Permanent solution
(maintenance and
control)
Narrow down target
items using Pareto
diagrams.
(1) Understand the
facts based on the
work site, actual
Develop 5-why
analysis based on
the facts and plan
and implement
measures.
(1) Standardization
and observance of
standards
(2) Daily control
based on control
charts
STEP 3
Cause analysis and
measure planning
Control critical
factors.
Find defect items
from which the
largest effect can
be expected.
(2) Analysis using
histograms and time
series graphs
4-2. STEP 2: Phenomenon Analysis (Quantitative Data) 4-2. STEP 2: Phenomenon Analysis (Quantitative Data)
STEP 1
Determining defect
items subject to
activities
STEP 2
Condition/Status
analysis
58
What Are the QC 7 Tools?
1. Pareto diagrams
2. Cause-and-effect
diagrams
3. Graphs
4. Check sheets
5. Histograms
6. Scatter diagrams
7. Control charts
QC 7 tools -- the statistical analysis tools
using graphs
Variance in quality
Cause of variance
(production 5Ms)
Man
Material
Machine
Method
Measurement
Manufacturing process
Data
sampling
It is important to select the adequate tool(s) for the purpose
Analysis
7 QC tools
59
QC 7 Tools - Comprehensive Drill
You belong to the coated wire extruding process group.
There are several kinds of defectives, and those are getting
serious quality issues. Now you are assigned to reduce the
number of defectives.
60
Pareto diagram showing amount of loss
10
20
F
l
a
w
P
u
l
l
o
u
t

f
o
r
c
e
L
u
m
p
B
a
d

w
i
n
d
i
n
g
C
u
m
u
l
a
t
i
v
e

r
a
t
e

(
%
)
0
50
100
Reel produced in Jan. 07
L
o
s
s

(
1
,
0
0
0

y
e
n
)
0
Conductor
Insulation
Flaw
Lump
Pullout force
inspection
Surface
inspection
Appearance
inspection
Bad winding
Example Problem: Reduction of Loss from
Defects in Wire Extrusion Process
Pullout force defect
(standard: 85 - 115 N/cm
2
)
Pullout force defect
determined to be an
activity target
70% of
loss
61
62

1 191.? ? 89. 1 91.4
? 199. ? 19. ? 89.
` 9`. ?8 11.1 ` 111.`
4 9?.? ?9 199.4 4 9.9
9?.4 `9 84.8 9`.
11.1 `1 19?. 9.9
8.1 `? 19. 9`.1
8 19.? `` 8.9 8 194.`
9 191.1 `4 9. 9 9.
19 191. ` 99.8 9 9.1
11 8`. ` 191.4 1 99.9
1? 19`.8 ` 8. ? 9`.8
1` 198. `8 11?.1 ` 98.8
14 94.1 `9 9`.8 4 9.8
1 19.9 49 94. 98.`
1 199. 41 88.4
1 98.8 4? 199.1
18 19.4 4` 89.`
19 19`. 44 119.8
?9 98.? 4 19.?
?1 19. 4 11?.`
?? 11.1 4 98.9
?` 19`.4 48 199.
?4 19. 49 1?1.4
? 19?. 9 94.
Standard value:
85 - 115 N
The table on the
right is data of
pullout capacity.
The standard
value is 85 N or
larger and smaller
than 115 N.
Minimum measuring unit: 0.1
Histogram Analysis Histogram Analysis
Create a histogram
and analyze pullout
force data.
(1) Does the average
deviate?
(2) Is the dispersion
excessive?
Q7: Histogram
N = 65
Manufactured in
Jan. 2007
Determined to
improve pullout
force defects.
Lot No. Pullout force Defective Lot No. Pullout force Defective Lot No. Pullout force Defective
63
Histogram Histogram
Column (class) Column (class)
Class boundary value Class boundary value
Class interval Class interval hh
yy Histograms are a tool to: Histograms are a tool to:
yy Terminology of histograms Terminology of histograms
yy Point in preparation Point in preparation
Divide data from the maximum value to the minimum into several classes to make the distribution Divide data from the maximum value to the minimum into several classes to make the distribution
easy to read. easy to read.
Maximum value Maximum value

hh
Minimum value Minimum value
Make it possible to overview the distribution of large volumes of Make it possible to overview the distribution of large volumes of
data at a glance; data at a glance;
Make it easy to calculate the average and standard deviation; and Make it easy to calculate the average and standard deviation; and
Understand the relationships between the data and standards. Understand the relationships between the data and standards.
Q7: Histogram
64
Collect data (done)
Number of bars: B = 65 8
Largest value: L = 121.8 Smallest value: S = 80.3
Class interval: h = (L-S) / B = (121.8 - 80.3) / 8 =5.14
rounded to 5.1 (decimals point 1 place)
Decide
number of intervals
interval range
class boundary value
Procedure for making a Histogram
Make graphs
that can also be
understood by
the others
e.g.
# of intervals: 9
Class interval : 5.0
1 898
? 899
` 999
4 9199
19919
19119
11911
8 111?9
9 1?91?
Lower limit specification value
Upper limit specification value
Class boundary value=Specification value
Easy to comprehend!
Interval
65

1 898 8?. `
? 899 8.
` 999 9?. 11
4 9199 9. 1`
19919 19?. 1`
19119 19. 11
11911 11?. 4
8 111?9 11. `
9 1?91? 1??. 1
Make a frequency table
///
//// /
//// //// /
////
////
////
////
////
////
////
///
/
///
///
/
Class Mid. frequency
66
9
?
4
8
19
1?
14
8
9
8
9
9
9
9
9
1
9
9
1
9
9
1
9
1
9
1
1
9
1
1
9
1
1
1
1
1
?
9
1
?
9
1
?
1
?
1
`
9
Specification lower limit

S
L
85
Specification upper limit
S
U
115
N=65
Manufactured
in March 2004
Out of SL and SU;
both are the problem!
Average value is
exactly the
target value!
Priority must be
put on improving
the deviation.
Average value 99.87
Standard deviation 8.62
Make a histogram
f
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y
67
Normal distribution
type
(Process under control)
Plateau type or
double-peak type
Small isolated
island type
Outliers resulting from
unexpected causes
Data of two different groups
is mixed
JNeeds to be stratified
The upper or lower limit is purposefully aimed at.
Data is skewed toward the lower specification limit.
Sub-standard products are removed by inspection.
Shapes of Histograms and Presumed Causes
Trailing skirt shape
type or cliff shape type
68
How to Read Histograms How to Read Histograms
1. 1. Find the characteristics of distributions. Find the characteristics of distributions.
2. 2. Compare distributions against the specification. Compare distributions against the specification.
3. 3. Stratify and compare them to determine differences according to stratifications. Stratify and compare them to determine differences according to stratifications.
Normal distribution type Toothless type Skewed-to-the-right type
Cliff shape type Double-peak type Small isolated island type
The process is under control.
(Commonly seen)
This case results from incorrect or
inconsistent measurement readings.
y Data is skewed toward the lower specification
limit.
yThere are none under a certain value, in theory.
Sub-standard products were
removed by 100% sorting.
Two distributions with different
average values are mixed.
Outliers resulting from
unexpected causes
69
Average value and standard deviation
(1) Average value

(2) Deviation sum of squares

(3) Unbiased variance
(4) Standard deviation
X
Assumed on
normal
distribution
i
X
) X (X
i

70
9
?
4
8
19
1?
14
8
9
8
9
9
9
9
9
1
9
9
1
9
9
1
9
1
9
1
1
9
1
1
9
1
1
1
1
1
?
9
1
?
9
1
?
1
?
1
`
9
What is Normal Distribution? What is Normal Distribution?

Example: Actual dimensions of
products manufactured to a certain
dimension range
Normal
distribution
Bilaterally symmetrical distribution with
sloping data dispersion curves, for
processes under stable conditions*
*Only genuine and inevitable dispersions occur.
F
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y
71
What is Normal Distribution? What is Normal Distribution?
yy Shape of distribution Shape of distribution
yy Numerical expression Numerical expression
yy The normal distribution of the average The normal distribution of the average Q Q and the and the
standard deviation standard deviation W W is represented as N ( is represented as N (Q Q,, W W
2 2
). ).
Probability density function Probability density function
As the total amount of data As the total amount of data
(N) increases and the class (N) increases and the class
intervals become narrower, intervals become narrower,
the ultimate measured the ultimate measured
values values f (x) f (x) mostly form mostly form
normal distributions. normal distributions.
2 2
2 2
2 2
) ) ( (
2 2
1 1
) ) ( (
W W
Q Q
W W
- -
- -
==
x x
e e
x x f f
a a bb gg
x x Q Q
W W
) ) ( ( x x f f y y
==
gg
TT
72
Population Parameters and Statistics Population Parameters and Statistics
Population Population
Population Population
parameters parameters
Q Q
2 2
W W
W W
1 1
x x
2 2
x x
nn
x x
Statistics Statistics
Speculation Speculation
(Population
parameters)
(Statistics)
Average
Dispersion
Standard
deviation
Q Q
2 2
W W
W W
x x
VV
s s
x x
VV
s s
V !
V !
73
Meaning of Meaning of Q Q and and W W
In a distribution, In a distribution, Q Q indicates the median position and indicates the median position and W W indicates the dispersion indicates the dispersion
degree (or width). degree (or width).
1 1
Q Q
2 2
Q Q
W W
1 1
W W
2 2
W W
The dispersion degree The dispersion degree W W did not change, but the average did not change, but the average Q Q changed. changed.
The average The average Q Q did not change, but the dispersion degree did not change, but the dispersion degree W W changed. changed.
W W
Q Q
74
W W W
Characteristics of Normal Distribution (1) Characteristics of Normal Distribution (1)
s1W 68%
s2W 95%
s3W 99.7%
When a measure of
dispersion degree W
(standard deviation) is used
99.7% of all of the data exists in the range of s3W from the average.
75
9
?
4
8
19
1?
14
8
9
8
9
9
9
9
9
1
9
9
1
9
9
1
9
1
9
1
1
9
1
1
9
1
1
1
1
1
?
9
1
?
9
1
?
1
?
1
`
9
N=65
Average value 99.87
Standard deviation 8.62
s1W 68%
99.87 s8.62
s2W 95%
99.87 s2 x 8.62
s3W 99.7%
99.87 s3 x 8.62
V
X
Characteristics of Normal Distribution (2) Characteristics of Normal Distribution (2)
F
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y
76
What Is Process Capability? What Is Process Capability?
When a process is under control, its capabilities can be
understood from the relationship between the range of
specification values and the standard deviation.
Lower
specification
limit
(S
L
)
Upper
specification
limit
(S
U
)
Defects rarely
occur.
Defects
frequently occur.
Range of
specification value
W
6W
W
6W
Range of
specification
value > 6W
Range of
specification
value < 6W
77
Concept of Process Capability (1) Concept of Process Capability (1)
V 6
x
Process capability index
V 6
S S
Cp
L U

Range of specification value

x
Large C
P
value = High
process capability
L
S
L
S
U
S
U
S
Process capability index:
C
P
(for specification with upper and lower limits)
Range of
specification
value
Range of
specification
value
Dispersion
V 6
In our company, we often assume that a
process with C
P
1.33 generally has
sufficient process capability.
78
U
S
L
S
V 4
V 6
V 8
x
x
x
V
V
V
5/100 p
: rate Defect
0.67 Cp
V 4 S S Where
L U
!
!
!
/199999 p
: rate Defect
1.33 Cp
V 8 S S Where
L U
!
(5%)
(0.3%)
(0.006%)
3/1000 p
: rate Defect
.00 1 Cp
V 6 S S Where
L U
!
!
!
79
1.5/1000 p : rate Defect .99. Cp
V 3 6 X or X S Where (1)
L U

!
100000 / 3 p : rate Defect , 33 . 1 Cp
V 4 S X or X S Where (2)
L U

V 3
U
S
x
x
L
S
The defect rate is 1/2
of the specification
with upper and
lower limits.
CP (for specification with either limit)
x
x
V 3
(0.15%)
(0.003%)
V 3
X - S
Cp
U
!
V 3
S - X
Cp
L
!
With upper
specification limit
With lower
specification limit
80
V 6
x
U
S
L
S
x
M
Mean specification value = M(S
U
+S
L
)/2
Extent of deviation ( = | |
V 3
) S (S
2
1
Cpk
L U

!
Half the range of specification value
Extent of deviation
Dispersion
Cp u Cpk
(Where ( = 0, C
P
= C
PK
)
y Process capability index with
distribution bias assessed
y Same concept as C
P
for
specification with either limit
When the deviation ( is large, the C
pk
value more accurately represents the
process capability.
C
pk
(for specification with upper and lower limits)
M x

81
Which reduces the process capability,
the average deviation or dispersion?
This can be determined by the values for C
p
and C
pk
for each process.
Cp
Cpk
0.67
0.67
Cp
Cpk
1.00
0.67
Cp
Cpk
1.33
0.67
Process 1 Process 2 Process 3
To improve the C
pk
of processes 1 to 3 from 0.67 to 1.33 or higher
Improve
dispersion.
Improve average
deviation.
Improve dispersion.
Improve average
deviation.
Prepare histograms, instead of determining by the values of C
p
and C
pk
only.
82
Dispersion of
the strip force
Material
Machine
(extruder)
Man
Method
Material
fife
plasticizer
lot
extrusion
pressure
cooling
water
temp.
Polyethylene
lot
test
machine
skill
wrong
procedure
preheat
operation
mistake
Material
mixing
Sorting out the causes using Cause-and-effect diagram
Sort out by breaking the causes into 5M
83
Cause-and-effect diagrams are very useful as a tool to organize factors in

many different peoples minds and share the same recognition; however,
inappropriate use of them can result in a leap in logic.
Factors have been organized!
Lets think about measures
now!
The listed factors are no more than assumptions, so it is
necessary to check the facts before considering measures.
Problems in factor organization using
cause-and-effect diagrams
Problems in factor organization using
cause-and-effect diagrams
This is
the
cause!
This must be a
cause!
Machine Material
Measurement
Man Method
P
r
o
b
l
e
m
,

d
e
f
e
c
t
,

a
n
d

t
r
o
u
b
l
e
84
9
89
99
199
119
1?9
1`9
Analysis Based on Time Series Graphs Analysis Based on Time Series Graphs
Equipment
stoppage
(weekend)
Equipment
stoppage
(weekend)
Equipment
stoppage
(weekend)
Cooling
water
problem
Enter changes on a time
series graph for analysis
(event analysis).
Pullout force
N/cm
2
Pullout force is weak
immediately after
equipment start-up.
Q7: Graph
85
Relational analysis between
characteristic value and potent cause
In the case of analysis the relation between two parametersScatter Diagram
Draw Scatter Diagram from
this data
86
Scatter Diagram
between Extrude pressure & Strip force test
0.8
70
1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2
80
90
100
110
120
130
S
t
r
i
p

f
o
r
c
e

(
k
g
f
)
Extrude Pressure (kg/mm )
2
Comprehending the relationship between
the presumed causes and the effects using Scatter diagram
No correlation
87
Scatter Diagram
between Cooling water temperature & Strip force test
130
70
12 14 16 18 20 22
80
90
100
110
120
S
t
r
i
p

f
o
r
c
e

(
k
g
f
)
Cooling water temp. ( )
24 26 28
Negative correlation
when the water temp. goes high,
the strip force goes down.
Comprehending the relationship between
the presumed causes and the effects using Scatter diagram
88
70
12 14 16 18 20 22
80
90
100
110
120
S
t
r
i
p

f
o
r
c
e

(
k
g
f
)
Cooling water temp. ( )
24 26 28
Specification
range
Controlled range of the causes
89
5. STEP 4: Permanent Solution (Maintenance and Control)
5-1. Standardization and observance of standards
5-1. Standardization and observance of standards
STEP 4
Permanent solution
(maintenance and
control)
Narrow down target
items using Pareto
diagrams.
(1) Understand the
facts based on the
work site, actual
(2) Analysis using
histograms and time
series graphs
Develop 5-why
analysis based on
the facts and plan
and implement
measures.
(1) Standardization
and observance of
standards
STEP 3
Cause analysis and
measure planning
Control critical
factors.
Find defect items
from which the
largest effect can
be expected.
(2) Daily control
based on control
charts
STEP 1
Determining defect
items subject to
activities
STEP 2
Condition/Status
analysis
90
Need for Standardization Need for Standardization
To make it possible for anyone to do the same task without overburden,
waste, and inconsistency at any time
Even though rules are standardized, we dont use them in reality.
Standardization would create 100 fools (loss of creativity).
Standardization in our department is impossible, because our work varies for every job.
y Implementable y Easy to observe
y Easy to understand y Followed by improvement
Familiar stories often heard in relation to standardization
y Standardization that disregarded wishes of people who actually use
the standard (dissociation from real situations at work sites)
y Standardization for standardization
Where did these ideas come from?
Conditions for standardization
Purpose of standardization
Standardization is not completed by the establishment of standards, but has meaning in
observance and utilization of these. It is important to keep improving the standards.
91
Promoting enforcement of observing basic rules
Building workplace climate of sticking with the basics
y Strictly observe anything specified.
y Always follow predetermined procedures when changing rules.
Establish
standards
properly
Extract and
suggest
operations
difficult to
perform or
observe the
rules
Strictly
observing
standards
(check whether
strictly
observed)
Review
Improvement
Unfailing quality
building
92
Five questions to facilitate observing standards
(1) Are rules properly established?
(2) Are the standards easily observed?
(3) Does the system help you tell that standards are observed?
(4) Are you actively trying to find discrepancies?
(5) Do you modify these items?
Are there standards that specify important items properly?
Can operators observe or implement the standards easily?
Is it clearly apparent to anyone whether standards are observed?
Do you walk around the site and actively try to find items difficult to be observed?
Do you quickly respond to (or improve) items difficult to carry out?
No human errors
Establish
Observe Modify
Observe
93
Blunders and standard observance promotion activities
Blunder True blunder
Work environment where mistakes are
likely to occur
Necessary rules not established
Nonobservance of rules
1. Operation difficult to perform
2. Frequent occurrences of brief stops
and minor trouble
1. Simultaneous multiple operations
2. Suspension during cycle operation
1. Operation in ones own way
2. Regular jigs not used
Promotion activities for
observing standards
True blunders
are limited
94
Aware
Operator
Leader
Performed
Not
performed
Not aware
Aware
Not aware
Performed
Not
performed
0 36 47
33
12
32 8
0 8
Cases of defects Cases of defects
0 ( 0%)
76 (43%)
88 (50%)
12 ( 7%)
176 (100%)
Solve problems by gathering the
wisdom of many people!
Stratification of defects according
to the New Johari Window
Solve problems by gathering the
wisdom of many people!
Stratification of defects according
to the New Johari Window
95
It is important that leaders teach rules and instruct operators to
observe them, when
(1) Operators do not observe the rules. (36 + 32 = 68 cases)
(2) Operators do not know the rules. (47 + 33 = 80 cases)
Do not overlook operators nonobservance!
(1) Operators do not observe the rules.
To eliminate this situation, it is important to not only teach
them the standards and rules, but also the reasons for
observing them.
y Why do they have to follow this procedure to do this task?
y What kind of defects may occur if they do not follow it?
To avoid this, a system to help you
tell that standards are observed is
necessary.
96
5-2. Daily control using control chart
5-2. Daily control using control chart
STEP 4
Permanent solution
(maintenance and
control)
Narrow down target
items using Pareto
diagrams.
(1) Understand the
facts based on the
work site, actual
(2) Analysis using
histograms and time
series graphs
Develop 5-why
analysis based on
the facts and plan
and implement
measures.
(1) Standardization
and observance of
standards
STEP 3
Cause analysis and
measure planning
Control critical
factors.
Find defect items
from which the
largest effect can
be expected.
(2) Daily control
based on control
charts
STEP 1
Determining defect
items subject to
activities
STEP 2
Condition/Status
analysis
97
(Defect) Sub-standard items or
nonconformance
(Irregularity) Something wrong with a
process (unusual condition);
different from defect or failure
<Key words> Defect and Irregularity <Key words> Defect and Irregularity
Using Control Chart Using Control Chart
Explain the meaning of defect and
irregularity, including the difference
between them.
Q7: Control chart
98
To Maintain Good Conditions in Processes To Maintain Good Conditions in Processes
Control limit Control limit
Specification limit Specification limit
Specification limit Specification limit
Control limit Control limit
Abnormality Abnormality
Take actions here.
<Defect> <Defect> Nonconformance Nonconformance
<Abnormality> <Abnormality> Something wrong with a process; different from defect or failure Something wrong with a process; different from defect or failure
Process
diagnosis
Take Take
measures measures
before defects before defects
occur occur
Abnormality in Abnormality in
process process
Early Early
restoration restoration Good conditions
maintained
[Control chart] [Control chart]
(Abnormality example in control chart) (Abnormality example in control chart)
For process maintenance, measures for abnormalities in the process For process maintenance, measures for abnormalities in the process
are required. are required.
Control charts are a tool for detecting abnormalities in the process. Control charts are a tool for detecting abnormalities in the process.
Point! Point!
Defe
ct
Easy detection of an abnormality
allows actions to be taken to prevent
defect occurrence.
99
To Maintain Good Conditions in Processes To Maintain Good Conditions in Processes
When control charts are likened to a human medical checkup When control charts are likened to a human medical checkup
Hospitalization and Hospitalization and
major surgery; death major surgery; death
in the worst case in the worst case
L
e
v
e
l

o
f

b
l
o
o
d

c
l
o
t

i
n

b
r
a
i
n

L
e
v
e
l

o
f

b
l
o
o
d

c
l
o
t

i
n

b
r
a
i
n

pp
S
i
c
k
S
i
c
k
Periodic medical checkup Periodic medical checkup
Control chart Control chart
==
Health maintenance Health maintenance
==
=
L
e
v
e
l

o
f

a
b
n
o
r
m
a
l
i
t
y

L
e
v
e
l

o
f

a
b
n
o
r
m
a
l
i
t
y

pp
D
e
f
e
c
t
D
e
f
e
c
t
T (Time) T (Time)
Abnormality detection Abnormality detection
Medication Medication
100
Irregularity is:
Different from defects, but an unusualstate where a certain part is not normal
or something is wrong.
(1) Irregularities listed as control items Relatively easy to detect
(2) Irregularities not listed as control items Must be detected with senses
Operators should report something they feel is unusual as abnormality,
like Oh, somethings different, about products or equipment.
(Reference) Sensitivity to Irregularity and In-Line Countermeasures
Sense Example of sense
Hands
1) The parts surface is usually slick, but is sticky today.
2) Parts can be inserted easier than usual.
3) When held, products feel lighter than usual.
Eyes
1) The bolt head is protruding more than usual.
2) The parts surface is less glazed than usual.
Ears
1) The sound of the press is louder than usual.
2) The sound heard when parts are inserted is different from the usual sound.
<Typical human senses>
101
(Reference) <Case Example of Detection with Senses>
Operation of cutting the gate on synthetic resin parts
The operator engaged in the operation felt the cutting was
Less sticky!
This operator reported the unusual feeling to the supervisor.
It is less
sticky! Different
than usual.
SWS
102
Control Chart Control Chart
Used to visualize the status of a process to check whether it is stable, and
enables quick detection and prompt action upon abnormality occurrence.
189
`9
1` 14 1 1 9 19 11 1? 1 18 1 ? ` 4 8
9
?9
19
19
19
?9
19
19
n = 5
UCL = 172.0
LCL = 158.0
CL = 165.0
UCL = 25.7
CL = 12.1
Range R
(maximum minimum)
Average value x
Upper control limit: UCL
Center line: CL
Lower control limit: LCL
Example of -R control chart x
Q7: Control chart
Date
103
Use quality for process control. Use quality for process control.
Quality building in process Quality building in process
Process control by quality Process control by quality
Process Quality performance
y Quality building in process: Standardization
Critical points are selected from the factors responsible for a certain
result and standardized as control points so that products are
controlled to not deviate from the standard.
y Process control by quality: Quality check, abnormality handling
If any abnormality is found when the variation of dispersed results
is compared to the standards and targets, the cause must be
investigated and removed.
Environment Material Machine
Measurement Method Man
Control charts are
a tool for process
control.
Concept of Control Chart Concept of Control Chart
104
Setting control limits Setting control limits (concept of Shewhart control charts) (concept of Shewhart control charts)
Control limits: s3W from center line 3 sigma rule

W 3
Concept of Control Chart Concept of Control Chart

(1) Abnormalities are difficult to notice
by only looking at data variation.
Establish an abnormality
determination standard to detect it.
(2) Take measures to prevent recurrence every time an abnormality is
detected to stabilize the dispersion.
Dispersion due to
abnormal cause
Dispersion due to uncontrollable cause
Upper control limit (UCL)
Center line
(CL)
Lower control limit (LCL)
105
W W W
What Are Control Limits, UCL and LCL? (1) What Are Control Limits, UCL and LCL? (1)
Process under control Process under control
(genuine and inevitable dispersions) (genuine and inevitable dispersions)
Bilaterally symmetrical distribution Bilaterally symmetrical distribution
with sloping data dispersion with sloping data dispersion
+3W -3W Average
99.7% of all data exists in 99.7% of all data exists in
the control limit range. the control limit range.
Normal
distribution
Control limit Control limit Control limit Control limit
The process is (basically) The process is (basically) under control under control (only (only
genuine and inevitable dispersions occur). genuine and inevitable dispersions occur).
When data is When data is beyond beyond the the
control limit range control limit range
When data is When data is contained contained
within the control limit range within the control limit range
The process is The process is not under control not under control (some (some
abnormal cause is assumed to exist). abnormal cause is assumed to exist).
106
Concept of Abnormality Determination from Concept of Abnormality Determination from
Control Chart Control Chart
j99.7% of data exists within s3W from the average
(0.3% outside).
jDots between UCL and LCL are dispersions due to
uncontrollable causes.
jDots deviated from UCL and LCL are different from those in
the population mean value .

0
W
0
Q
0
W
0
Q
Distribution of
x
) (
0
x Q
W 3 s
W
(Conventional distribution) (Use new data for a test.)
Determined as abnormality
107
With small dispersion With small dispersion With large dispersion With large dispersion
Defects hardly occur. Defects hardly occur. Defects occur. Defects occur.
The control limits are inside the The control limits are inside the
product specification. product specification.
The control limits are outside the The control limits are outside the
product specification. product specification.
Upper specification limit Upper specification limit
6 6W W 1 1
W W 1 1
U
C
L
U
C
L
L
C
L
L
C
L
Lower specification limit Lower specification limit
6 6W W 2 2
W W 2 2
U
C
L
U
C
L
L
C
L
L
C
L
Upper specification limit Upper specification limit Lower specification limit Lower specification limit
What Are Control Limits, UCL and LCL? (2) What Are Control Limits, UCL and LCL? (2)
108
What is an control chart? What is an control chart?
j Basic control chart for control chart method
j Arbitrary intervals can be set as a group.
For example, to check the stability of quality characteristics for a
whole day, set one day as a group.
j Samples of 4 or 5 units (sample size: ) are taken from each group.
j These control the statistic (average and range ).
n

1
x
2
x
3
x
4
x
1
R
2
R
3
R
4
R

1
x
2
x
3
x
4
x
1
R
2
R
3
R
4
R
Average
Range
R x
R
x
How to Prepare and Use Control Charts How to Prepare and Use Control Charts
Group No. 1
109
1 ? ` 4
1 1`1. 1. 1`.1 14.4 1. 14.?8 ?4.88
? 14.` 14?.9 1`.9 14.? 1.9 19.19 1`.9?
` 14`.8 1. 19.8 14.9 149.1 1`.?1 ?1.1
4 18. 1. 14?. 1`. 14`.9 14.89 ?.89
11.4 1.1 1?8.9 14.9 11.9 19.99 4`.49
14?.` 149. 149.? 1.` 1`8. 149.49 ?8.
1.8 14. 14`.9 144.? 14.9 14.91 11.8
8 141. 1?9. 1.` 11. 1`. 14.4 `.
9 11. 14`.9 1`4.? 1.9 1. 19.? `?.4
19 14?.1 11.` 1`8. 11.? 19. 19.` ??.8`
11 1.9 19.8 19.8 1`.9 1. 1.1 1.99
1? 1`8. 1`.9 14. 1.? 141.9 14.99 ?9.??
1` 14. 14.` 144.1 19.9 14`.8 11. ?.1`
14 148.4 1.1 14.1 1?. 1`. 11. 8.99
1 148.4 11. 144.9 149.1 11.8 149.`4 ?1.4
1 1.? 1?.9 149.4 1`9.1 149.9 1`.9 ``.8
1 1`.? 149. 19.1 149. 11.9 14`.8 4.9
18 19.4 1.9 1. 141. 14?. 149.9 1.`8
19 1`4.? 148. 1`.` 1.9 144.? 144.9 ??.9
?9 149. 1`.8 148.9 1`.4 11.9 149.`9 1`.1
149.9 ?4.`

20 groups x 5 samples
Example of Dot Position Calculation for Control Chart
Group
Sample No.
Average x Range
R
Calculate and plot
and R values
for each group
x
Overall mean
110
How to prepare x How to prepare x- -R control chart (for process analysis) R control chart (for process analysis)
Calculate control limits from the data for the process (statistic).
Step 1: Collect data for 20 to 25 consecutive groups.
Datasheet
Sample size
Number of groups
Characteristic value
of sample
Individual value
5 ! n
20 ! k
x
. , ,
2 1
x x
Supplement 1
Supplement 1: How to Prepare Control Chart
Date and time
Group
No.
Measurement value
111
Step 2: Calculate the average of
samples for each group.
Step 3: Calculate the range of
samples for each group.
n
x x x
x
n

!
.
2 1
x) (minimal - x) (maximal R !
Datasheet
Date and time
Group
No.
Measurement value
Total Average Range
112
g
5 ! n
5 ! n

Horizontal axis: Group No.
Vertical axis:
R x and
Step 5: Plot
Control chart
Step 4: Format the
control chart
form.
R x and
Sample size of group
Plot dots.
Group No.
Group No.
113
Step 6: Calculate the control lines.
Formula for calculating control lines

x
k
x
x

!
R A x
2
R A x
2
x control chart
Center line (CL)
999 . 52
20
98 . 1059
groups of Number
of Total
! !
!
x
x
322 . 53
56 . 0 577 . 0 999 . 52
2
!
v !
! R A x UCL
676 . 52
56 . 0 577 . 0 999 . 52
2
!
v !
! R A x LCL
A
2
is a control chart
coefficient determined by n.
Control line x control chart
Center line (CL)
Upper control limit
(UCL)
Lower control limit
(LCL)
114 Supplement 1: How to Prepare Control Chart
Figure 3: Table of x-R control chart coefficients
115

R
k
R
R

!
R D
4
R D
3
R control chart
56 . 0
20
2 . 11
groups of Number
of Total
! !
!
R
R
18 . 1 56 . 0 114 . 2
4
! v !
! R D UCL
D
4
and D
3
are control chart
coefficients determined by n.
! ! R D LCL
3
(Not assumed)
Formula for calculating control lines
Control line
R control chart
Center line (CL)
Upper control limit
(UCL)
Lower control limit
(LCL)
Center line (CL)
116
Step 7: Draw control lines: a solid line for CL and a dotted line for
UCL and LCL.
Step 8: Determine the control status by whether dots exist outside
the control limits (out of control).
Step 9: Enter necessary items: the product name, process name, period data was
obtained, group structure, size and number of groups, values of control lines, and
name of person that prepared the data.
g
5 ! n

8 & /`.`?
& /`.99
/& /?.8
8 & /1.18
& /9.
g
5 ! n

8 & /`.`?
& /`.99
/& /?.8
8 & /1.18
& /9.
117
Plot and values as shown in figure below.
Determination of the group plotted
(stability and cause that cannot be overlooked)
When it is determined that there exists a cause that cannot be
overlooked, investigate it, take actions at the production process,
and take measures to prevent recurrence.
g
322 . 53 ! UCL
999 . 52 ! CL
676 . 52 ! UCL
18 . 1 ! UCL
56 . 0 ! CL
5 ! n
322 . 53 ! UCL
999 . 52 ! CL
676 . 52 ! UCL
18 . 1 ! UCL
56 . 0 ! CL
5 ! n
R x
How to Prepare and Use Control Charts How to Prepare and Use Control Charts
Control chart for process analysis Control chart for process control
(Process in stable state)
Group No.
(Process in unstable state)
Cause that cannot be
overlooked
(nozzle damaged)
Cause that cannot be
overlooked
Action (nozzle
replacement)
118
Stable state Daily process status
Normal Standard Abnormal
x
control chart
R
control chart
Abnormality Detection from Control Chart
Fluctuation of
average
Fluctuation of
dispersion
119
Abnormality Determination from Control Charts (1)
CL
UCL
LCL
Dots occur out of the control limit range.
Immediately analyze the factors.
Draw up a plan for measures.
Do not take provisional measures
such as equipment adjustment
without careful consideration.
Consider why abnormality
has occurred.
Implement essential
recurrence prevention
measure.
Any dots marked outside the control
limit range suggest a very high
possibility that some abnormality has
occurred.
Mark a red
circle.
120
Trends of Runs Determined to Be Abnormal (1)
Dots have periodic patterns.
CL
UCL
LCL
(Example)
y Performance is bad on every Friday.
y High values occur at the start time for the day.
y Values go up once during set-up operation
and then gradually go down, etc.
121
Dots are concentrated on one side of the center line.
CL
UCL
LCL
y When nine or more consecutive dots are
marked on one side of the center line, it
should be determined to be abnormal.
9
C
9
= 0.5
0
x 0.5
9
= 0.00195 (0.195%)
The probability that nine dots in a
row remain above the center line
under controlled conditions is
1 : 512
122
Dots have a trend of rising or falling.
CL
UCL
LCL
1/6! = 0.00139 (0.139%)
The probability that six dots in
a row continue to rise under
controlled conditions is
1 : 720
y When six or more consecutive dots
show a continuous rise or fall, it should
be determined to be abnormal.
123
The dot distribution has double peaks.
CL
UCL
LCL
y Data of two different types is mixed
(e.g. data for two pieces of equipment).
As this is hard in some cases to detect from a
control chart only, use of raw data and
histograms together is effective.
124
Dots frequently appear near
the control limit lines.
CL
UCL
LCL
CL s 2W
2/3 of control
limit range
y When two out of three consecutive dots are
out of the CL s2 range, it should be
determined to be abnormal.
The probability that two out of three dots in a
row are out of the CL s 2W range under
controlled conditions is
3
C
2
= 3 x 0.95
1
x 0.05
2
= 0.007125
3
C
3
= 0.95
0
x 0.05
3
= 0.000125 0.00725
(0.725%)
1 : 138
125
Dots are too concentrated in the center.
CL
UCL
LCL
y When 15 or more consecutive dots are near
the center line (CL s 1), it should be
determined to be abnormal.
CL s 1W
1/3 of control
limit range
15
C
15
= 0.32
0
x 0.68
15
= 0.00307 (0.307%)
The probability that 15 dots in a row are
within the CL s 1W range under controlled
conditions is
1 : 326
126
For measures against abnormalities, fundamental For measures against abnormalities, fundamental
measures to prevent recurrence are required, instead of measures to prevent recurrence are required, instead of
simple provisional measures. simple provisional measures.
(Flow of problem solution: Factorial analysis (Flow of problem solution: Factorial analysis
measure planning) measure planning)
Point! Point!
How to Take Actions How to Take Actions
Actions to be taken upon abnormality detection Actions to be taken upon abnormality detection
yy Solve the problem using factorial analysis first and then measure planning. Solve the problem using factorial analysis first and then measure planning.
yy There is no manual for identifying causes and taking measures. There is no manual for identifying causes and taking measures.
yy Beside the knowledge of control charts, the knowledge, experience, and intuition Beside the knowledge of control charts, the knowledge, experience, and intuition
specific to the relevant field are also required. specific to the relevant field are also required.
yy It is important to take actions while looking at not only the data, but also actual objects. It is important to take actions while looking at not only the data, but also actual objects.
Precautions for abnormality handling Precautions for abnormality handling
yy When an abnormality occurs, it is not appropriate to let it pass easily with a When an abnormality occurs, it is not appropriate to let it pass easily with a
provisional action such as equipment adjustment. provisional action such as equipment adjustment.
yy Consider Consider why this abnormality has occurred in a process which was stable, why this abnormality has occurred in a process which was stable, and and
measures to prevent recurrence should be taken. measures to prevent recurrence should be taken.
127
What Is to Be Controlled? What Is to Be Controlled?
Select critical items without regard to ease of data collection.
j Defect rate (result)
j Critical quality
characteristics (result)
j Factors extensively affecting critical
quality characteristics (cause)
To facilitate taking actions upon abnormality
occurrence, clarify the cause-and-effect relationship
of defect occurrence and set the factors influential
to defects as control characteristics.
Defect rate and
quality
characteristics
Set the factors most influential to Set the factors most influential to defects as control characteristics defects as control characteristics
based on the cause based on the cause- -and and- -effect relationship of defects. effect relationship of defects.
128
A variety of control charts are available depending on the
statistics represented.
--- Refer to the supplementary reference, for details.
Which Type of Control Chart Is to Be Used? Which Type of Control Chart Is to Be Used?
Data characteristics
Type of control
chart
Volume of group
data; sample size (n)
Quality value to plot
Discrete
value
Data continuously
changing such as
dimensions, mass, and
chemical ingredients
x-R control chart
Definite
2 10
Average (x) and Range (R)
x-Rs control chart 1 Every piece of data
Indiscrete
value
Nonconforming product np control chart Definite
Qty. of nonconforming
products (np)
Nonconformity rate p control chart Indefinite
Ratio of nonconforming
products (p)
Number of
nonconformities
c control chart Definite unit
Number of nonconformities
(c)
Number of
nonconformities per unit
u control chart Indefinite
Number of nonconformities
per unit (u)
129
Which Control Chart Is to Be Used? Which Control Chart Is to Be Used?
(1) (1) Control chart of indiscrete values Control chart of indiscrete values
(A) (A) When no more than one sample can be obtained When no more than one sample can be obtained
x x- -Rs Rs control chart control chart
Control limit Control limit UCL = 21.3 UCL = 21.3
Control limit Control limit LCL=18.5 LCL=18.5
20.0
21.0
19.0
3/1 19.55
3/2 20.25
3/3 19.90
3/4 20.80
1 sample/day 1 sample/day
Plot as is. Plot as is.
0.5
1.0
0
3/1 19.55
3/2 20.25
3/3 19.90
3/4 20.80
1 sample/day 1 sample/day
Plot the Plot the
obtained obtained
values. values.
0.70
0.35
0.90
Difference Difference
in R in R
SS
Supplement 2: Types of Control Charts
x x
control control
chart chart
Rs Rs
control control
chart chart
130
(B) (B) When the median is used instead of the average When the median is used instead of the average
Plot the medians instead of the averages of the data. Plot the medians instead of the averages of the data.
It is an advantage that there is no need to calculate average It is an advantage that there is no need to calculate average
values, but the power of the test for abnormalities is inferior to values, but the power of the test for abnormalities is inferior to
that of x control charts. that of x control charts.
R control charts can be used in a similar way to x R control charts can be used in a similar way to x- -R control charts. R control charts.
x x control chart control chart
Control limit Control limit LCL = 4.1 LCL = 4.1
5.0
5.5
4.5
3/1 5.5 5.2 5.1
3/2 5.4 4.9 5.3
3/3 4.9 5.2 4.7
3/4 5.1 4.8 5.6
3 samples/day 3 samples/day
Plot the Plot the
medians medians
of 3 pcs. of 3 pcs.
of data of data
~~
~~
x x
control control
chart chart
131
(2) (2) Control chart of discrete values Control chart of discrete values
(A) (A) To control the quantity of defects To control the quantity of defects
When the characteristics of products can only be sorted as either When the characteristics of products can only be sorted as either
conforming or nonconforming, set a consistent sampling quantity conforming or nonconforming, set a consistent sampling quantity
and plot the number of nonconforming products within it. and plot the number of nonconforming products within it.
pn pn control chart control chart
10
15
5
3/1 5
3/2 12
3/3 9
3/4 14
200 samples/day 200 samples/day
Qty. of defects Qty. of defects
20
pn pn
control control
chart chart
132
(B) (B) To control the defect rate (%) To control the defect rate (%)
To plot the defect rates, the sampling quantities do not To plot the defect rates, the sampling quantities do not
have to be consistent, but there is the inconvenience of have to be consistent, but there is the inconvenience of
control limits varying. control limits varying.
3/1 5/200 2.5%
3/2 12/200 6.0%
3/3 9/100 9.0%
3/4 4/100 4.0%
Sampled qty. and Sampled qty. and
defect rate defect rate
UCL = 12 UCL = 12
LCL = 1 LCL = 1
6
10
2
UCL = 13.2 UCL = 13.2
LCL = 0.6 LCL = 0.6
p p control chart control chart
p p
control control
chart chart
133
(C) (C) To control flaws such as number of scratches To control flaws such as number of scratches
When the characteristics can only be represented by the number When the characteristics can only be represented by the number
of flaws in a certain range, such as scratches on a glass surface, of flaws in a certain range, such as scratches on a glass surface,
plot the number of flaws that exist in a certain area. plot the number of flaws that exist in a certain area.
3/1 5
3/2 12
3/3 9
3/4 14
Number of scratches Number of scratches
in 10 sheets of glass in 10 sheets of glass
10
15
5
c c control chart control chart
20
c c
control control
chart chart
134
(D) (D) To control the number of flaws per unit area To control the number of flaws per unit area
When the number of flaws per 1 m When the number of flaws per 1 m
2 2
is used, the area subject to is used, the area subject to
the check is discretionary, but there is the inconvenience of the the check is discretionary, but there is the inconvenience of the
control limits varying. control limits varying.
u u
control control
chart chart
3/1 5/20 0.25
3/2 12/20 0.60
3/3 9/10 0.90
3/4 4/10 0.40
Area checked (m
2
) and
number of flaws per 1 m
2
UCL = 1.2 UCL = 1.2
LCL = 0.1 LCL = 0.1
0.6
1.0
0.2
UCL = 1.3 UCL = 1.3
LCL = 0.06 LCL = 0.06
In selecting a control chart type, it is best to consider the In selecting a control chart type, it is best to consider the
control characteristics carefully and utilize x control characteristics carefully and utilize x- -R control charts R control charts
that have a high power of testing for abnormalities. that have a high power of testing for abnormalities.
Point! Point!
u u control chart control chart

0606-02 Quality Improvement Procedure Rev7-2

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0606-02 Quality Improvement Procedure Rev7-2

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1

199 199 199 199

The measure taken was not appropriate.

The problem reoccurred.

Specification lower limit

(4) Standard deviation

What is Normal Distribution? What is Normal Distribution?

Range of specification value

Concept of Process Capability (4) Concept of Process Capability (4)

Cause-and-effect diagrams are very useful as a tool to organize factors in

Concept of Control Chart Concept of Control Chart

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