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Takeoff Performance
Takeoff Performance Basics Definitions: Runway Takeoff Distances Definitions: Takeoff Speeds JAR 25 Requirements Engine failure Optimisation improved climb Reduced takeoff
p% x D Net Gradient
Distance = D
Takeoff Distances
RUNWAY This is the ACN capable hard surface CLEARWAY - This is an area, under the control of the airport,
152 m (500 ft) minimum width, with upward slope not exceeding 1.25%. Any obstacles penetrating the 1.25% plane will limit the Clearway STOPWAY - A surface capable of supporting the aircraft in an RTO. Its width must be greater than or equal to that of the runway. It may not be used for landings
Takeoff Distances
CLEARWAY
RUNWAY
STOPWAY
MAX 1.25%
Takeoff Distances
TORA- TakeOff Run Available. This is the physical runway limited by obstacle free requirements ASDA - Accelerate-Stop Distance Available. This is the distance available for accelerating to V1 and then stopping. It may include the physical runway and any stopway available TODA - TakeOff Distance Available. This is the distance available to achieve V2 at the appropriate screen height. It may include physical runway, stopway and clearway Note: Not more than the Air Distance may be in the Clearway (Air Distance is distance from lift-off to 35 ft) The Takeoff Run is defined as the distance from brake release to the Air Distance Wet Runway calculations do not allow use of Clearway
Takeoff Speeds
V1
Takeoff Speeds
V1, the Takeoff action speed, is the speed used as a reference in the event of engine or other failure, in taking first action to abandon the take-off. The V1 call must be done so that it is completed by V1.
V2 VEF V1 35
VEF
V1
Takeoff Speeds
VR
VR is the speed at which rotation is initiated, so that in the case of an engine failure, V2 will be reached at a height of 35 feet using a rotation rate of 2-3 / second Regulations prohibit a RTO after rotation has been initiated, thus VR must be greater than V1. VR u V1
Takeoff Speeds
V2
V2 is the takeoff safety speed. This speed will be reached at 35 feet with one engine inoperative.
Takeoff Speeds
Effects on the screen height of continuing a takeoff with an engine failure prior to VEF
35 Ft
10 Ft
2 Engine 1 sec
-16
+4
+8
Takeoff Speeds
V1(MCG) - The Minimum Ground Control Speed This is the speed at which, in the case of a failure of the Critical Engine, it is possible to control the aeroplane by aerodynamic means only without deviating from the runway centreline by more than 30 ft, while maintaining takeoff thrust on the other engine(s). Maximum rudder force is restricted to 68 Kg (150 lbs) In demonstrating V1(MCG), the most critical conditions of weight, configuration and CG will be taken into consideration Crosswind is not considered in V1(MCG) determination Obviously VEF must be greater than V1(MCG) , or the aircraft would be uncontrollable on the ground with an engine inoperative:
VEF u V1(MCG)
Takeoff Speeds
VMC - The Minimum Control Speed This is the speed, when airborne, from which it is possible to control the aeroplane by aerodynamic means only with the Critical Engine Inoperative while maintaining takeoff thrust on the other engine(s) The demonstration is made with not more than 5 Bank into the live engine, Gear retracted (as this reduces the directional stability) and the most Aft CG (as this reduces the Rudder Moment.) (VMC may increase as much as 6 Kts. / Bank from demonstration with wings level and Ball centred)
V > V2 35 ft
15% Safety Margin
V1
V2 35 ft
VEF V1
VEF V1
ACCELERATE STOP
BALANCED V1
V1
V2
V2
Acceleration
Clean
MCT
1st Segment
2nd Segment
3rd Segment
4th Segment
TWIN
>0
2.4%
1.2%
Obstacle Clearance
For Obstacle Clearance a Net Takeoff Flight Path is considered It is not demonstrated, but rather calculated from the Gross Flight Path by reducing the gradients by a safety margin:
Twin 0.8%
It also will take wind into account, using 50% of the Headwind Component and 150% of the Tailwind Component, thus giving a further safety margin. The Net Takeoff Flight Path must clear all obstacles by 35 Ft
Obtacle Vs Climb
1st Segment 2nd Segment 3rd Segment 4th Segment
V2
Obstacle Clearance
The minimum height for flap retraction is 400ft AAL (gross) TNT A B737 : we use 800 ft AAL minimum If there is a high obstacle in the 3rd or 4th segment, we could extend the second segment to ensure that the obstacle was cleared by 35ft. Provided it still remains in the 3rd or 4th Segment We now have a Minimum Gross and Minimum Net Acceleration Height which is then corrected for elevation and temperature to give a Minimum Gross Acceleration Altitude
Obstacle Clearance
35 Ft 400 Ft
Acceleration Altitude
The extension of the second segment and raising of the EFFRA (JAR : EOAA) is limited as takeoff thrust must be maintained until acceleration altitude is attained The Takeoff Thrust is limited to 5 minutes and this restricts the extension of second segment
0'30"
3'00"
2'30"
2'00"
Obstacle Clearance
Only obstacles within a certain lateral distance of the flight path are taken into account in performance calculations For each runway, Obstacle Cone is constructed for Straight Ahead or Turning Engine Out Procedures (EOP) Wind is not considered therefore correct tracking is important There is not a large margin for error for a jet airplane
3000 ft
300 ft
width = 0.125 x D
21600 ft
3000 ft 3000 ft
300 ft
Obstacle Clearance
Bank Angle has a large effect on the climb performance and therefore Obstacle Clearance
GRADIENT
15
30 BANK ANGLE
Depending on Flap Setting, the Max Angle Speed is typically 1.13 VS + 15 to 30 Kts
Vs 1.13Vs 1.28Vs
EAS
In order to achieve the higher V2, the VR speed must be increased The V1 speed must also be increased to ensure that there is sufficient runway to accelerate, lose and engine and be able to continue the takeoff at higher weight As V1 is higher, the VMBE speed must be checked for brake energy limits as this may become limiting
When the actual TOW is below the maximum allowable TOW for the actual OAT, it is desirable to reduce the engine thrust This thrust reduction is a function of the difference between actual and maximum TOW JAA requires that the reduced thrust may not be less than 75% of the full takeoff thrust. Specific figures may apply for different airplanes/engines
MAX TOW
Allowed TOW Act TOW
OAT
Assumed temperature
Temp
Margin at V1
OAT = 10C ASS. TEMP = 30C weight is MTOW
V1
Landing Distance Approach Climb Landing Climb Procedure Design Missed Approach Gradient
Landing Distance
JAR 25 defines the landing distance as the horizontal distance required to bring the airplane to a standstill from a point 50 ft above the Runway Threshold. They are determined for Standard Temperatures as a function of: Weight Altitude Wind (50% Headwind and 150% Tailwind) Configuration (Flaps, Manual/Auto-Speedbrakes, Brakes) They are determined from a Height of 50 ft at VREF on a Dry (or Wet), Smooth Runway using Max Brakes, full Antiskid and Speedbrakes but No Reversers
Landing Distance
Boeing describes the braking technique as Aggressive. The Brakes are fully depressed at touchdown Runway Slope is NOT accounted for Non standard temperatures are NOT accounted for Approach speed Additives are NOT accounted for These are considered to be covered by the extra margins used to define certified landing distances
Landing Distance
V = 1.23 VS1G
Approach Climb
Approach Climb
Aircrafts are certified to conduct a missed approach and satisfy a Gradient of 2.1% - GROSS The configuration is: One Engine Inoperative Gear Up Go Around Flaps (15 on 737) G/A Thrust Speed must be e 1.4 VSR
(Strictly speaking, the Flap Setting must be an intermediate flap setting corresponding to normal procedures whose stalling speed is not more than 110% of the final flap stalling speed)
Landing Climb
3.2%
Landing Climb
Aircrafts are certified to conduct a missed approach and satisfy a Gradient of 3.2% - GROSS The configuration is: All Engines Operating Gear Down Landing Flaps (30 or 40 on 737) G/A Thrust The speed must be u 1.13 VSR and VMCL It is also a requirement that full G/A thrust must be available within 8 seconds of the thrust levers forward from idle
MAP
A conflict exists between JAR 25 and ICAO JAR 25 requires a Approach Climb Gradient of 2.1% Gross and a Landing Climb gradient of 3.2% Gross ICAO requires a missed approach procedure gradient of at least 2.5% Net which may require at least 3.9% Gross And Tailwind has not been accounted for
The case of an engine failure during Go-Around is not considered as this is deemed a remote possibility!!!
5x
Thrust Available on 1 Engine 75%
EAS
THE END