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The Median
Because the mean average can be sensitive to extreme values, the median is sometimes useful and more accurate. The median is simply the middle value among some scores of a variable. (no standard formula for its computation)
Rank order and choose middle value. If even then average between two in the middle
132 148 151 165 165 187 189 199 213 227 251 308
The Mode
The most frequent response or value for a variable. Multiple modes are possible: bimodal or multimodal.
Answer: 165 Important descriptive information that may help inform your research and diagnose problems like lack of variability.
Measures of Dispersion
Measures of dispersion tell us about variability in the data. Also univariate. Basic question: how much do values differ for a variable from the min to max, and distance among scores in between. We use:
Range Standard Deviation Variance
Remember that we said in order to glean information from data, i.e. to make an inference, we need to see variability in our variables. Measures of dispersion give us information about how much our variables vary from the mean, because if they dont it makes it difficult infer anything from the data. Dispersion is also known as the spread or range of variability.
In other words, the range gives us the value between the minimum and maximum values of a variable. Understanding this statistic is important in understanding your data, especially for management and diagnostic purposes.
2 ( X X ) (n - 1)
=square root =sum (sigma) X=score for each point in data _ X=mean of scores for the variable n=sample size (number of observations or cases
X Smuggle Bopsey Pallitto Homer Schnickerson Levin Honkey-Doorey Zingers Boehmer Queeny Googles-boop Calzone Mean 165 213 189 187 165 148 251 308 151 132 199 227 194.6
X- mean -29.6 18.4 -5.6 -7.6 -29.6 -46.6 56.4 113.4 -43.6 -62.6 4.4 32.4
x-mean squared 875.2 339.2 31.2 57.5 875.2 2170.0 3182.8 12863.3 1899.5 3916.7 19.5 1050.8 2480.1
49.8
We can see that the Standard Deviation equals 165.2 pounds. The weight of Zinger is still likely skewing this calculation (indirectly through the mean).
Example of S in use
Boehmer- Sobek paper. One standard deviation increase in the value of X variable increases the Probability of Y occurring by some amount.
% Change in prob after 1 sd change in given x variable, holding others at their means
Lets go to computers!
Type in data in the Excel sheet.
Variance
2=
2 ( X X ) (n - 1)
no square root taken. Its use is not often directly reported in research but instead is a building block for other statistical methods
Goal of Graphing?
1. Presentation of Descriptive Statistics 2. Presentation of Evidence 3. Some people understand subject matter better with visual aids 4. Provide a sense of the underlying data generating process (scatterplots)
Creating Frequencies
We create frequencies by sorting data by value or category and then summing the cases that fall into those values. How often do certain scores occur? This is a basic descriptive data question.
Here we have placed the Professors into weight classes and depict with a histogram in columns.
Weight Class Intervals of Donut-Munching Professors 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 130-150 151-185 186-210 211-240 241-270 271-310 311+ Number
Pie Charts:
Proportions of Donut-Eating Professors by Weight Class
Approval
19
100 10 30 40 50 60 70 80 20 90 0
19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 90 91 92 93 94 19 19 19 19 19 20 20 95 96 97 98 99 00 01
Approval
81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89
Economic approval
Month
19 19 19