The Blind Men and the Quantum: The Blind Men and the Quantum:

A Quick Tour To Quantum World A Quick Tour To Quantum World

The Blind Men and the Quantum: The Blind Men and the Quantum:
A Quick Tour To Quantum World A Quick Tour To Quantum World
K.P.SATHEESH K.P.SATHEESH
Principal,
Govt. College
Ambalapuzha
Lecture @ S.H.College, Thevara 17-2-2005
Quantum
Mechanics
The Blind Men The Blind Men
and the Elephant and the Elephant
by John Godfrey Saxe (1816 by John Godfrey Saxe (1816--1887) 1887)
The Blind Men The Blind Men
and the Elephant and the Elephant
by John Godfrey Saxe (1816 by John Godfrey Saxe (1816--1887) 1887)
It was six men of Indostan, To learning much inclined, Who went to see the Elephant,
(Though all of them were blind), That each by observation, Might satisfy his mind. .
The First approached the Elephant, And happening to fall, Against his broad and sturdy side, At once began to bawl:
God bless me! but the Elephant, Is very like a wall!
The Second, feeling of the tusk, Cried, Ho! what have we here, So very round and smooth and sharp? To me tis mighty clear,
This wonder of an Elephant, Is very like a spear!
The Third approached the animal, And happening to take, The squirming trunk within his hands, Thus boldly up and spake:
I see, quoth he, the Elephant, Is very like a snake!
The Fourth reached out an eager hand, And felt about the knee. What most this wondrous beast is like, Is mighty plain, quoth he;
Tis clear enough the Elephant, Is very like a tree!
The Fifth, who chanced to touch the ear, Said: Een the blindest man, Can tell what this resembles most; Deny the fact who can,
This marvel of an Elephant, Is very like a fan!
The Sixth no sooner had begun, About the beast to grope, Than, seizing on the swinging tail, That fell within his scope,
I see, quoth he, the Elephant, Is very like a rope!
And so these men of Indostan, Disputed loud and long, Each in his own opinion, Exceeding stiff and strong,
Though each was partly in the right, And all were in the wrong!
Moral: So oft in theologic wars, The disputants, I ween, Rail on in utter ignorance, Of what each other mean,
And prate about an Elephant, Not one of them has seen!
What is Quantum Mechanics? What is Quantum Mechanics?
Quantum mechanics is a theory. It is our
current standard model for describing
the behavior of matter and energy at the
smallest scales (photons, atoms, nuclei,
quarks, gluons, leptons, ).
Like all theories, it consists of a
mathematical formalism, plus an
interpretation of that formalism.
However, quantum mechanics differs from other physical theories
because, while its formalismof has been accepted and used for 80
years, its interpretation remains a matter of controversy and debate.
Like the opinions of the 6 blind men, there are many rival QM
interpretations on the market.
Quantum
Mechanics
Classical Particles
Classical Particles Newtonian Mechanics.
It answers questions, such as:
What is the trajectory of a satellite around the earth?
If a missile is fired, where will it land?
If a billiard ball is hit at a certain angle, what will the outcome
be?
Description of a classical particle:
Mass (m), charge (q), position (r(t)), velocity (v(t))
Given the force, F, equation of motion:
F
dt
t r d
m
T
T
!
2
2
) (
If force and initial position/velocity are given, the position
and velocity at anytime in the future can be predicted with
complete certainty.
Physical observables of a particle, such as energy, varies
continuously.
m
p
KE
p r l
v m p
2
2
!
v !
!
: energy Kinetic
: momentum Angular
: Momentum
T
T
T T
(1.1)
(1.2)
(1.3)
(1.4)
Classical Particles
Classical Wave Phenomena
Examples of waves: Ocean waves, sound waves, waves in
violin strings, electromagnetic waves (light),
Description of waves: Amplitude, velocity, frequency,
wavelength , but not mass and position as for particles.
Wave Equation:
x
x

x
x
!
2
2 2
2
2
1
0
] ] ( , ) ( , ) x t
x v
x t
t
amplitude
velocity
A general solution of the Equation:
] [ [ ( , ) exp[ ( )] exp[ ( )] x t A i kx t B i kx t !
(3.5)
(3.6)
where A and B are amplitude of the waves, k is called
wavenumber and w the angular frequency.
Wavelength:
Frequency: f =
Velocity: v =
k
P
T
[
T
[
P
!
!
2
2
k
f
-8
-6
-4
-2
0
2
4
6
8
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
A
l
(1.7)
(1.8)
(1.9)
Classical Wave Phenomena (contd)
Wave Interference:
When monochromatic light passes through two slits, a striped
interference pattern is produced.
constructive
interference
destructive
interference
Classical Wave Phenomena (contd)
Wave Diffraction:
(a) Light casts a sharp shadow when the opening is large compared to
the wavelength of the light. (b) Diffraction is apparent and the
shadow is fuzzy when the opening is small. (c) Intensity of diffracted
light through a thin slit.
Plane waves passes through openings of various sizes. The
smaller the opening, the greater the bending of the waves at
the edges.
c
Classical Wave Phenomena (contd)
Wave Groups and Dispersion:
] [ ( , ) exp[ ( )] x t A i kx t !
Velocity: v =
k
p
[
P ! f Phase
Plane wave:
Wave Packet:
Or wave group
Group velocity: v =
dk
g
d[
What is the velocity, v
g
???
(1.10)
Classical Wave Phenomena (contd)
Construction of a wave packet:
=
+
+
+
=
A ik x
1 1
exp( )
A ik x
2 2
exp( ) A ik x
3 3
exp( )
Fourier Fourier
transform transform
(3.11)

g
g
! dk t kx i k A t x f ) ( exp[ ) ( ) , ( [
Wave dispersion:
If then the phase volecity depends on k (wavelength)
and the medium is called dispersive.
d
dk
2
2
0
[
{ ,
In a dispersive medium, individual plane waves travel with
different phase velocities and the shape of the wave packet
changes.
The Origins of the Quantum Theory
E
m
a
x
o Data
Slope = h
o Data
Theory
Planck (1900)
Einstein
(1905)
Bohr
(1911)
E = h f
What is quantum mechanics?
It is a framework for the development of physical theories.
It is not a complete physical theory in its own right.
Quantum
electrodynamics (QED)
Operating system
Applications software
Quantum mechanics
Specific rules
Newtons laws of motion
Newtonian gravitation
QM consists of four mathematical postulates which lay the
ground rules for our description of the world.
How successful is quantum mechanics?
It is unbelievably successful.
No deviations from quantum mechanics are known
Most physicists believe that any theory of everything
will be a quantum mechanical theory
Not just for the small stuff!
QM crucial to explain why stars shine, how the Universe
formed, and the stability of matter.
A conceptual issue, the so-called
measurement problem, remains
to be clarified.
Attempts to describe gravitation
in the framework of quantum
mechanics have (so far) failed.
Timeline - Modern Physics
Modern Physics was a sudden revolution
starting around 1900, and ending ????
Einstein
2000
1950 1900
Michelson
Planck
Thomson
Rutherford
Bohr
Special
Relativity
General
Relativity
Quantum
Mechanics
De Broglie
Schrodinger
Heisenberg
Transistor
Invented
All the
Quarks
discovered
Laser
Invented
Nuclear Energy
Released
Expansion
of Universe
discovered
Neutron Stars
discovered
Start of
Quantum
Mechanics
Curie
General Comment
Quote from the famous modern physicist,
Richard Feynman:
If we were able to pass along only one bit of scientific
knowledge to future generations, what would be the most
important one piece of information to choose?
Feynmans answer: That matter is made of atoms
What could this mean? How could this fact be so important?
The Appeal of Atomism
It is natural to try to explain the vast diversities that
we see in terms of the arrangements and
interactions of a small number of fundamental
building blocks: atoms!
Atomism in Ancient Greece:
Democritus: There are only atoms and the void. Apparent
qualities are result of shape, arrangement, and position of atoms.
Atoms remain unaltered.
Gave us the name: atom - indivisible
Explains the basic properties of matter
Changes but is never created nor destroyed (in our ordinary
experience)
Solid: Atoms linked together
Liquid: Atoms flowing around each other
Gas: expands to fill any container because the atoms are in
motion
The Periodic Table
Question: Do the properties of atoms (elements)
indicate that there are more than 100 different
flavors of these fundamental pieces?
Or do the properties indicate a pattern of substructure??
Atomic # = # of protons
Are Atoms Indivisible?
Marie Curie (1897) discovers immense radiation energy from
element she named Radium.
Surprising? Yes!
If the radiation comes from the atom, it could indicate that an
atom had been transformed into another kind of atom!
If atoms are not immutable, then it makes sense to ask what
are atoms made of?
X-rays discovered in 1895 by
Roentgen - World Wide sensation!
Unknown ray produced from electric
discharge that penetrates matter!
J.J. Thomson discovers the electron
in 1897.
Henri Becquerel (1896) tries to
produce X-rays from natural
sources.
Finds radiation (less penetrating than X-
rays) given off from ore containing
Uranium.
Atomic Models
Conclusion: Atoms contain electrons.
Questions: How are they arranged? Since atoms
are neutral, where is the positive charge?
Two models:
Plum pudding: Electrons are embedded in continuum of
positive electricity like plums in a pudding.
Planetary model: Electrons orbit a small nucleus of positive
charge like planets orbit the Sun.
Electrons
Positive Charge
Or
Atomic Models
How to distinguish between these models?
Ernest Rutherford had discovered that certain rays
given off by radioactive material were E rays -
positive particles (ions) with the mass He atom.
Used to study the atoms itself! Observe how E
particles (Helium ions) scatter from a Gold foil.
U
Au
E
v
Count the number of times an E
particle scatters through an angle
U, for different angles U.
What do you expect?
Plum Pudding: only small deflections since E particles much
heavier than electrons.
Planetary: can occasionally get large deflections if most of the
mass of the atom resides in the nucleus.
Scattering Experiments
probe
probe
For plum pudding: expect
only small angle scattering.
For planetary model: may
see small angle or large
angle scattering.
Scattering Experiments
probe For plum pudding: expect
only small angle scattering.
probe
For planetary model: may
see small angle or large
angle scattering.
Rutherford saw
large angles
planetary model!
The Problem of the atom
Experiments supported the picture that an atom is
composed of light electrons around a heavy
nucleus
Problem: if the electrons orbit the nucleus, classical
physics predicts they should emit electromagnetic
waves and loose energy.
If this happens, the electrons
will spiral into the nucleus!
The atom would not be stable!
What is the solution to
this problem?
Bohrs Revolutionary Idea
Can the new quantum
theory explain the stability
of the atom?
If the energies can take on
only certain discrete
values, i.e., it is quantized,
there would be a lowest
energy orbit, and the
electron is not allowed to
fall to a lower energy!
What is the role of
Plancks Constant h?
Plancks Constant h and the atom
Bohr (and others) noted that the combination
a
0
= (h/2T)
2
/ me
2
has the units of length about the size of atoms
Bohr postulated that it was not the atom that
determined h, but h that determined the properties
of atoms!
Since the electron is bound to the nucleus by
electrical forces, classical physics says that the
energy should be
E = - (1/2) e
2
/a
0
If the radii are restricted to certain values, the the
energy can only have certain values
The allowed orbits are labeled by the
integers: n = 1, 2, 3, 4.
The radii of these orbits can be
determined from the quantization
condition:
radius = n
2
a
0
= n
2
(h/2T)
2
/ me
2
The energy can only have the values
E
n
= E
1
/n
2
, E
1
= - (1/2)(e
2
/ a
0
)/n
2
The spectra are the result of
transitions between these orbits,
with a single photon (f = E/h)
carrying off the difference in energy
E between the two orbits.
The Bohr Atom (NOT Correct in detail!)
1
2
3
4
Ideas agree with Experiment
Bohrs picture:
The only stable orbits of the electrons occur at definite
radii.
When in these orbits, contrary to classical E&M, the
electrons do not radiate.
The radiation we see corresponds to electrons moving from
one stable orbit to another.
Experiments (already known before 1912)
Experiment: Balmer had previously noticed a regularity in
the frequencies emitted from hydrogen:
f = f
0
( (1/n
2
) - (1/m
2
)) where n and m are integers.
Bohrs Theory: Fits exactly using the value of h determined
from other experiments
Photon carries energy (=hf) = difference of stable orbits.
Hydrogen Spectrum: Balmer series
Balmer Formula: f = f
0
( (1/n
2
) - (1/m
2
))
32.91 ( 1/4 - 1/9 ) = 4.571
32.91 ( 1/4 - 1/16 ) = 6.171
32.91 ( 1/4 - 1/25 ) = 6.911
32.91 ( 1/4 - 1/36 ) = 7.313
32.91 ( 1/4 - 1/49 ) = 7.556
frequency (10
14
Hz)
4.571
6.171
6.912
7.314
7.557
IT WORKS!
Demonstration:
Spectra of different atoms
frequency (10
14
Hz)
4.571
6.171
6.912
7.314
7.557
Observe spectra of different gases
Individual grating for each student
Using interference - wave nature of light - to separate the
different frequencies (colors)
Hydrogen
Neon - strong line in Red
Sodium - strong line in yellow (street lights)
Mercury - strong lines in red, blue (street lights)
Blackbody Radiation
The true beginnings of the quantum theory lie in a strange
place: the frequency spectrum emitted by a solid when it is
heated (blackbody radiation).
Experimental measurements: the frequency spectrum was
well determined.. a continuous spectrum with a shape that
depended only on the temperature (light bulb, )
Theoretical prediction: Classical kinetic theory predicts the
energy radiated to increase as the square of the frequency
(Completely Wrong! - ultraviolet catastrophe).
frequency
Plancks Solution
Max Planck (1901): In order to describe the data Planck made
the bold assumption that light is emitted in packets or quanta,
each with energy
E = h f, where f is the frequency of the light.
Some texts use the notation v for frequency.
The factor h is now called
Plancks constant, h = 6.626 (10
-27
) erg-sec.
o Data
Theory
E = h f
The two most important formulas in modern physics
E = mc
2
(Einstein special relativity - 1905)
E = h f (Planck quantum mechanics - 1901)
Planck initially called his theory an act of
desperation.
I knew that the problem is of fundamental significance for
physics; I knew the formula that reproduces the energy
distribution in the normal spectrum; a theoretical interpretation
had to be found , no matter how high.
Leads to the consequence that light comes only in
certain packets or quanta
A complete break with classical physics where all
physical quantities are always continuous
Photoelectric Effect
Einstein took Plancks hypothesis seriously
in order to explain the photoelectric effect.
Effect: Shining light on a metal can
liberate electrons from its surface.
Experimental facts:
Easy for UV light (high frequency) hard
for red light (low freq).
Energy of the electrons depends on frequency of light
Increasing intensity of light increases number of electrons
emitted, but not the energy of each electron
Cant be explained by wave behavior of
light.
If light is generated in quantized units,
Einstein reasoned it would also arrive with
quantized amounts of energy
Photoelectric Effect: The Theory
Einsteins explanation: Suppose the energy in the
light is concentrated in particle-like objects (now we
call them photons) whose energy depend on the
frequency of the light according to Plancks
equation: E = hv.
Prediction: Maximum energy of electrons liberated =
energy of photon - binding energy of electron.
E
max
= hf - hf
0
Experiment: done accurately by Millikan in 1916:
E
m
a
x
o Data
Slope = h
Frequency f
Light is Quantized!
We referred to light as a wave.
We did experiments to show that light behaves like a wave.
Recall:
Waves continuously transmit energy, they do not transmit
matter.
Blackbody radiation and the photoelectric effect
indicate that the energy transmitted by light comes
in packets!!
Light doesnt behave like a wave.
The energy light carries is quantized, which means it comes in
tiny bursts. The amount of energy per burst is determined by
the frequency and Plancks constant h:
E=hf
Light can behave like a particle. Any chance a
particle can behave like a wave?
The Two-Slit Experiment
We will first examine an experiment which Richard
Feynman says contains all of the mystery of
quantum mechanics.
The general layout of the experiment consists of a
source, two-slits, and a detector as shown below;
source
detector
x
The idea is to investigate three different sources (a classical particle
(bullets), a classical wave (water), and a quantum object (electron or
photon)). We will study the spatial distribution (x) of the objects which
arrive at the detector after passing through the slits.
slits
Classical Particles
Classical particles are emitted at the source and arrive at the
detector only if they pass through one of the slits.
Key features:
particles arrive in lumps. ie the energy deposited at the
detector is not continuous, but discrete. The number of particles
arriving per second can be counted.
The number which arrive per second at a particular point (x) with
both slits open (N
12
) is just the sum of the number which arrive
per second when only the top slit is opened (N
1
) and the number
which arrive per second when only the bottom slit is opened (N
2
).
x
N
only bottom
slit open
only top
slit open
x
N
Both slits
open
Classical Waves
Classical waves are emitted at the source and arrive at the
detector only if they pass through the slits.
Key features:
detector measures the energy carried by the waves. eg for water waves,
the energy at the detector is proportional to the square of the height of the
wave there. The energy is measured continuously.
The energy of the wave at a particular point (x) with both slits open (I
12
) is
NOT just the sum of the energy of the wave when only the top slit is
opened (I
1
) and the energy of the wave when only the bottom slit is
opened (I
2
). An interference pattern is seen, formed by the superposition
of the piece of the wave which passes through the top slit with the piece
of the wave which passes through the bottom slit.
x
I
only bottom slit open
only top slit open
x
I
Both slits open
Quantum Mechanics
Particles act like waves!
Experiment shows that particles (like
electrons) also act like waves!
x
I
only bottom slit open
only top slit open
x
I
Both slits open
The de Broglie Wavelength
Big question: How can we quantify deBroglies
hypothesis that matter can sometimes be viewed as
waves? What is the wavelength of an electron?
de Broglies idea: define wavelength of electron so
that same formula works for light also, when
expressed in terms of momentum!
What is momentum of photon? This is known from relativity:
p = E / c (plausible since: E = mc
2
and p = mc E = pc)
How is momentum of photon related to its wavelength?
from photoelectric effect: E = hf pc = hf
change frequency to wavelength: c = Pf c/f = P
p P = h P = h / p
Particles Act Like Waves!
P = h / p
Schrodingers
Equation
De Broglies
Matter Waves
Towards Understanding
Bohr atom
Quantized energy levels, allowed orbits
deBroglie waves
Particle acts like wave, wavelength depends upon momentum
Obviously related, but unclear exactly how
Erwin Schroedinger pulled it all together in 1926
The Schrodinger Equation
In 1926 Erwin Schrodinger proposed an equation
which describes completely the time evolution of the
matter wave +
( - (h
2
/ 2m) \
2
+ V) + ! i h (d+/dt)
where m = characteristic mass of particle
V = potential energy function to describe the forces
Newton: Schrodinger
Given the force, find motion Given potential, find wave
F = ma = m (d
2
x/dt
2
) (- (h
2
/ 2m) \
2
+ V) + ! i h (d+/dt)
solution: x = f(t) solution: + = f(x,t)
Note: Schrodingers equation is more difficult to solve, but it is
just as well-defined as Newtons. If you know the forces acting,
you can calculate the potential energy V and solve the
Schrodinger equation to find +.
Key Results of Schrodinger Eq.
The energy is quantized
Only certain energies are allowed
Agrees with Bohrs Idea in general
Predicts the spectral lines of Hydrogen exactly
Applies to many different problems - still one of
the key equations of physics!
The wavefunction is spread out
Very different from Bohrs idea
The electron wavefunction is not at a given radius
but is spread over a a range of radii.
What is + :
Our current view was fully developed by Bohr from
an initial idea from Max Born.
Borns idea: + is a probability amplitude wave!
+
2
tells us the probability of finding the particle at a
given place at a given time.
Leads to indeterminancy in the fundamental laws of
nature goodbye Newtonian worldview!
Uncertainty principles
Not just a lack of ability to measure a property - but a
fundamental impossibility to know some things
Einstein doesnt like it:
The theory accomplishes a lot, but it does not bring us
closer to the secrets of the Old One. In any case, I am
convinced that He does not play dice.
Probability interpretation for +
2
The location of an electron is not determined by +.
The probability of finding it is high where +
2
is large,
and small where +
2
is small.
Example: A hydrogen atom is one electron around a
nucleus. Positions where one might find the
electron doing repeated experiments:
Nucleus
Higher probability
to find electron
near nucleus
Lower probability
to find electron
far from nucleus
Summar
y
Near the turn of the 20
th
century, a second revolution was in
the works.
Experiments were probing very small distance scales, learning about
electrons, atoms, nuclei
Max Planck (1900) had the idea that blackbody radiation could
be explained if light was emitted in quanta with E=hf
Einstein (1905) reasoned that this would also explain the
photoelectric effect (light transfers quanta of energy to emitted
electrons)
Light can behave like a particle!
deBroglie (1923) proposed that matter could behave as a wave
Scattering experiments showed this to be true!
The quantum theory is born.
Nature is not continuous as Newton thought.
It is discrete. Energy comes in packets.
This explains how atoms behave as well
Werner Heisenberg proposed that the basic ideas on
quantum mechanics could be understood in terms
of an Uncertainty Principle
The Uncertainty Principle
where (p and (x refer to the
uncertainties in the measurement of
momentum and position.
Similar ideas lead to uncertainty in time and energy
(p (x u h/2T = h/2
The constant h-bar has the approximate value
h = 10
-34
Joule seconds
(E (t u (1/2) h/2T = (1/2) h
The uncertainty principle can be understood from
the idea of de Broglie that particles also have wave
character
What are properties of waves
Waves are patterns that vary in space and time
A wave is not in only one place at a give time - it is spread
out
Example of wave with well-defined wavelength P and
momentum p = h/ P, but is spread over all space, i.e.,
its position is not well-defined
Uncertainty Principle and Matter Waves
P
-1.2
-0.8
-0.4
0
0.4
0.8
B
1.2
-20 80 180 280 380
A
-1.2
-0.8
-0.4
0
0.4
0.8
B
1.2
-20 80 180 280 380
A
Example of wave with well-defined position in space
but its wavelength P and momentum p = h/ P is not
well-defined , i.e., the wave does not correspond to a
definite momentum or wavelength.
The Nature of a Wave - continued
0
Position x
Most probable position
Quantum Tunneling
In classical mechanics an object can never get over a barrier
(e.g. a hill) if if does not have enough energy
In quantum mechanics there is some probability for the
object to tunnel through the hill!
The particle below has energy less than the energy needed
to get over the barrier
E
n
e
r
g
y
tunneling
Example of Quantum Tunneling
The decay of a nucleus is the escape of particles bound
inside a barrier
The rate for escape can be very small.
Particles in the nucleus attempt to escape
10
20
times per second, but may succeed in escaping only
once in many years!
Radioactive
Decay
E
n
e
r
g
y
tunneling
Example of Probability Intrinsic to
Quantum Mechanics
Even if the quantum state (wavefunction) of the nucleus is
completely well-defined with no uncertainty, one cannot
predict when a nucleus will decay.
Quantum mechanics tells us only the probability per unit
time that any nucleus will decay.
Demonstration with Geiger Counter
Radioactive
Decay
E
n
e
r
g
y
tunneling
Heisenbergs Uncertainty Principle
involving energy and time
If our measurement lasts a certain time (t, then
we cannot know the energy better than an
uncertainty (E
Normally, the car can only get as far as C,
before it falls back again
But a fluctuation in energy could get it over
the barrier to E!
Imagine the Roller Coaster ...
Quantum Tunnelling
A particle borrows an energy (E to get over a
barrier
Does not violate the uncertainty principle,
provided this energy is repaid within a certain
time (t
The taller the barrier, the less likely tunnelling
would occur
Example of Quantum Tunnelling:
Radioactivity
Concept of Half-Life

13
N has a half-life of 10 min
Consider a sample of
13
N
After 10 min, half of the
13
N atoms would have decayed and half
would not have decayed
After another 10 min, half of the remaining
13
N atoms would
have decayed and half would not
Probabilistic process: can never predict exactly
when
a given atom would decay
Applications of Quantum Tunnelling
Scanning tunnelling microscope
Tunnel diode
Josephson junction
Scanning Tunnelling Microscope
Tungsten STM tip
(photo taken with an SEM)
Iron Atoms on Copper
35 Xenon Atoms on Nickel
Discourse on Quantum Weirdness
Einsteins moon
Schrdingers cat
EPR paradox
Paradox 1 (non-locality):
Einsteins Bubble
Paradox 1 (non-locality):
Einsteins Bubble
Situation: A photon is emitted
from an isotropic source.
Paradox 1 (non-locality):
Einsteins Bubble
Paradox 1 (non-locality):
Einsteins Bubble
Situation: A photon is emitted
from an isotropic source.
Its spherical wave function +
expands like an inflating bubble.
Paradox 1 (non-locality):
Einsteins Bubble
Paradox 1 (non-locality):
Einsteins Bubble
Question (Albert Einstein):
If a photon is detected at Detector A, how does the photons
wave function + at the location of Detectors B & C know that it
should vanish?
Situation: A photon is emitted
from an isotropic source.
Its spherical wave function +
expands like an inflating bubble.
It reaches a detector, and the +
bubble pops and disappears.
It is as if one throws a beer bottle into
Boston Harbor. It disappears, and its
quantum ripples spread all over the
Atlantic.
Then in Copenhagen, the beer bottle
suddenly jumps onto the dock, and the
ripples disappear everywhere else.
Thats what quantum mechanics says
happens to electrons and photons
when they move from place to place.
Paradox 1 (non-locality):
Einsteins Bubble
Paradox 1 (non-locality):
Einsteins Bubble
Experiment: A cat is placed in a sealed box
containing a device that has a 50% chance of
killing the cat.
Question 1: What is the
wave function of the cat
just before the box is
opened?
When does the wave function collapse?
Paradox 2 (+ collapse):
Schrdingers Cat
Paradox 2 (+ collapse):
Schrdingers Cat
1 1
2 2
( dead + alive ?) +!
Experiment: A cat is placed in a sealed box
containing a device that has a 50% chance of
killing the cat.
Question 1: What is the
wave function of the cat
just before the box is
opened?
When does the wave function collapse?
Paradox 2 (+ collapse):
Schrdingers Cat
Paradox 2 (+ collapse):
Schrdingers Cat
Question 2: If we observe Schrdinger, what is his
wave function during the experiment? When does it
collapse?
1 1
2 2
( dead + alive ?) +!
Paradox 2 (+ collapse):
Schrdingers Cat
Paradox 2 (+ collapse):
Schrdingers Cat
The question is, when and
how does the wave function
collapse.
What event collapses it?
How does the collapse
spread to remote locations?
Paradox 3 (wave vs. particle):
Wheelers Delayed Choice
Paradox 3 (wave vs. particle):
Wheelers Delayed Choice
A source emits one photon.
Its wave function passes
through slits 1 and 2, making
interference beyond the slits.
The observer can choose to either:
(a) measure the interference pattern at
plane W

requiring that the photon travels

through both slits.
or
(b) measure at plane W
2
which slit image it
appears in indicating that
it has passed only through slit 2.
The observer waits
until after the photon
has passed the slits to
decide which
measurement to do.
*
**
Thus, the photon does not
decide if it is a particle or a
wave until after it passes
the slits, even though a particle
must pass through only one slit and a wave must pass
through both slits.
Apparently the measurement choice determines
whether the photon is a particle or a wave retroactively!
Paradox 3 (wave vs. particle):
Wheelers Delayed Choice
Paradox 3 (wave vs. particle):
Wheelers Delayed Choice
Paradox 4 (non-locality):
EPR Experiments
Malus and Furry
Paradox 4 (non-locality):
EPR Experiments
Malus and Furry
An EPR Experiment measures the correlated
polarizations of a pair
of entangled photons, obeying
Malus Law [P(U
rel
) = Cos
2
U
rel
]
Paradox 4 (non-locality):
EPR Experiments
Malus and Furry
Paradox 4 (non-locality):
EPR Experiments
Malus and Furry
An EPR Experiment measures the correlated
polarizations of a pair
of entangled photons, obeying
Malus Law [P(U
rel
) = Cos
2
U
rel
]
The measurement gives the same result
as if both filters were in the same arm.
Paradox 4 (non-locality):
EPR Experiments
Malus and Furry
Paradox 4 (non-locality):
EPR Experiments
Malus and Furry
An EPR Experiment measures the correlated
polarizations of a pair
of entangled photons, obeying
Malus Law [P(U
rel
) = Cos
2
U
rel
]
The measurement gives the same result
as if both filters were in the same arm.
Furry proposed to place both photons in
the same random polarization state.
This gives a different and weaker correlation.
Paradox 4 (non-locality):
EPR Experiments
Malus and Furry
Paradox 4 (non-locality):
EPR Experiments
Malus and Furry
Apparently, the measurement on the right side of
the apparatus causes (in some sense of the
word cause) the photon on the left side to be in
the same quantum mechanical state, and this
does not happen until well after they have left
the source.
This EPR influence across space time works
even if the measurements are light years
apart.
Could that be used for FTL signaling? Sorry, SF
fans, the answer is No!
Three Three
Interpretations Interpretations
of Quantum Mechanics of Quantum Mechanics
Heisenbergs uncertainty principle:
Wave-particle duality, conjugate variables, e.g., x and p, E and t;
The impossibility of simultaneous conjugate measurements
Borns statistical interpretation:
The meaning of the wave function ] as probability: P = ] ]*;
Quantum mechanics predicts only the average behavior of a system.
Bohrs complementarity:
The wholeness of the system and the measurement apparatus;
Complementary nature of wave-particle duality: a particle OR a wave;
The uncertainty principle is property of nature, not of measurement.
Heisenbergs "knowledge" interpretation:
Identification of ] with knowledge of an observer;
] collapse and non-locality reflect changing knowledge of observer.
Heisenbergs positivism:
Dont-ask/Dont tell about the meaning or reality behind formalism;
Focus exclusively on observables and measurements.
The Copenhagen Interpretation The Copenhagen Interpretation
Quantum
Mechanics
Retain Heisenbergs uncertainty principle and
Borns statistical interpretation from the Copenhagen Interpretation.
No Collapse.
The wave function ] never collapses; it splits into new wave
functions that reflect the different possible outcomes of
measurements. The split off wave functions reside in physically
distinguishable worlds.
No Observer:
Our preception of wave function collapse is because our
consciousness has followed a particular pattern of wave function
splits.
Interference between Worlds:
Observation of quantum interference occurs because wave functions
in several worlds have not been separated because they lead to the
same physical outcomes.
The Many-Worlds Interpretation The Many-Worlds Interpretation
Quantum
Mechanics
Heisenbergs uncertainty principle and Borns statistical interpretation are not
postulates, because they can be derived from the Transactional
Interpretation..
Offer Wave:
The initial wave function ] is interpreted as a retarded-wave offer to form a
quantum event.
Confirmation wave:
The response wave function ] (present in the QM formalism) is interpreted
as an advanced-wave confirmation to proceed with the quantum event.
Transaction the Quantum Handshake:
A forward/back-in-time ] ] standing wave forms, transferring energy,
momentum, and other conserved quantities, and the event becomes real.
No Observers:
Transactions involving observers are no different from other transactions;
Observers and their knowledge play no special roles.
No Paraoxes:
Transactions are intrinsically nonlocal, and all paradoxes are resolved.
e Transactional Interpretation (JGC) e Transactional Interpretation (JGC)
Summary of QM Interpretations Summary of QM Interpretations
Copenhagen
Many
Worlds
Transactional
Uses observer knowledge to explain
wave function collapse and non-locality.
Advises dont-ask/dont tell about reality.
Uses world-splitting to explain wave
function collapse. Has problems with non-
locality. Useful in quantum computing.
Uses advanced-retarded handshake to explain
wave function collapse and non-locality. Provides
a way of visualizing quantum events.
The Transactional The Transactional
Interpretation Interpretation
of Quantum of Quantum
Mechanics Mechanics
Listening to the Formalism
of Quantum Mechanics
Listening to the Formalism
of Quantum Mechanics
Consider a quantum matrix element:
<S> =
v
] S ] dr
3
= <f | S | i>
a ]* - ] sandwich. What does this suggest?
Hint: The complex conjugation in ] is the
Wigner operator for time reversal. If ] is a
retarded wave, then ] is an advanced wave.
If ] ! A e
i(kr-[t)
then ] ! A e
i(-kr+[t)
(retarded) (advanced)
Maxwells Electromagnetic
Wave Equation (Classical)
Maxwells Electromagnetic
Wave Equation (Classical)
\
2
F
i
! c
2
x
2
F
i
xt
2
This is a 2
nd
order differential equation,
which has two time solutions, retarded
and advanced.
Wheeler-Feynman Approach:
Use retarded and advanced
(time symmetry).
Conventional Approach:
Choose only the retarded solution
(a causality boundary condition).
A Classical Wheeler-Feynman
ElectromagneticTransaction
A Classical Wheeler-Feynman
ElectromagneticTransaction
The emitter sends retarded and
advanced waves. It offers
to transfer energy.
The Quantum
Transactional Model
The Quantum
Transactional Model
Step 1: The emitter sends
out an offer wave +.
The Quantum
Transactional Model
The Quantum
Transactional Model
Step 1: The emitter sends
out an offer wave +.
Step 2: The absorber responds
with a confirmation wave
+*.
The Quantum
Transactional Model
The Quantum
Transactional Model
Step 1: The emitter sends
out an offer wave +.
Step 2: The absorber responds
with a confirmation wave
+*.
Step 3: The process repeats
until energy and momentum
is transferred and the
transaction is completed
(wave function collapse).
The Transactional Interpretation and
Wave-Particle Duality
The Transactional Interpretation and
Wave-Particle Duality
The completed transaction
projects out only that part
of the offer wave that had been
reinforced by the
confirmation wave.
Therefore, the transaction
is, in effect, a projection
operator.
This explains wave-particle
duality.
actional Interpretation and the Born Pro actional Interpretation and the Born Pro
Starting from E&M and the Wheeler-Feynman
approach, the E-field
echo that the emitter receives
from the absorber is the product
of the retarded-wave E-field at
the absorber and the advanced-
wave E-field at the emitter.
Translating this to quantum
mechanical terms, the echo
that the emitter receives from
each potential absorber is ++*,
leading to the Born Probability Law.
The Role of the Observer in
the Transactional Interpretation
The Role of the Observer in
the Transactional Interpretation
In the Copenhagen interpretation,
observers have a special role as the collapsers of
wave functions. This leads to problems, e.g., in
quantum cosmology where no observers are
present.
In the transactional interpretation, transactions
involving an observer are the same as any other
transactions.
Thus, the observer-centric aspects of the
Copenhagen interpretation are avoided.
Can Interpretations
of QM be Tested?
Can Interpretations
of QM be Tested?
The simple answer is No!. It is the formalismof quantum mechanics
that makes the testable predictions.
As long as an interpretation is consistent with the formalism, it will
make the same predictions as any other interpretation, and no
experimental tests are possible.
However, there is a new experiment (Afshar), which suggests that the
Copenhagen and Many-Worlds Interpretations may be inconsistent
with the quantum mechanical formalism.
If this is true, then these interpretations can be falsified.
The Transactional Interpretation is consistent with the Afshar results
and does not have this problem.
Wheelers Delayed
Choice Experiment
Wheelers Delayed
Choice Experiment
One can choose to either:
Measure at W
1
the interference pattern, giving the
wavelength and momentum of the photon, or
Measure at W
2
which slit the particle passed through, giving
its position.
Wheelers Delayed
Choice Experiment
Wheelers Delayed
Choice Experiment
Thus, one observes either:
Wave-like behavior with the
interference pattern
or
Particle-like behavior in determining
which slit the photon passed through.
The Afshar Experiment The Afshar Experiment
Put wires with 6% opacity at the positions of the interference
minima at W
1
, and
Place detector at 2 on plane W
2
and observe the particles passing
through slit 2.
Question: What fraction of the light is blocked by the grid and
not transmitted? (i.e., is the interference pattern still there when
one measures particle behavior?)
The Afshar Experiment The Afshar Experiment
Copenhagen-influenced expectation:
The measurement-type forces particle-like behavior, so
there should be no interference, and no minima.
Therefore, 6%of the particles should be intercepted.
The Afshar Experiment The Afshar Experiment
Many-Worlds-influenced expectation:
The universe splits, and we are in a universe in which the
photon goes to 2. Therefore, there should be no interference,
and no minima. Consequently, 6% of the particles should be
intercepted.
The Afshar Experiment The Afshar Experiment
Transactional-influenced expectation:
The initial offer waves pass through both slits on their way to
possible absorbers. At the wires, the offer waves cancel in first
order, so that no transactions can form and no photons can be
intercepted by the wires. Therefore, the absorption by the
wires should be very small (<<6%).
Afshar Experiment Results Afshar Experiment Results
Grid + 1 Slit
6% Loss
Grid + 2 Slits
<0.1% Loss
No Grid
No Loss
Afshar Test Results Afshar Test Results
Copenhagen
Many
Worlds
Transactional
Predicts no interference. Predicts no interference.
Predicts interference, as does the QM formalism.
Afshar Test Results Afshar Test Results
Transactional
Thus, it appears that the Transactional Interpretation
is the only interpretation of the three discussed that has
survived the Afshar test. It also appears that other
interpretations on the market (Decoherence, Consistent-
Histories, etc.) fail the Afshar Test.
However, quantum interpretational theorists are fairly
slippery characters. It remains to be seen if they will
find some way to save their pet interpretations.
Einsteins Moon
Does the moon exist if nobody is looking
at it?
Copenhagen interpretation:
NO! The moon exists only in terms of probability
wave functions
Only when observed do these wave functions
collapse
to definite states
Conflict between objective and subjective realities
Schrdingers Cat
One atom of
13
N and a detector
If atom decays, detector activates a hammer
which breaks a glass containing poison gas
Everything inside a box, together with a cat,
and seal it
After 10 minutes has passed,
just before we open the box...
Copenhagen interpretation: The cat exists
in a probabilistic state of being 50% alive
and 50% dead
Our act of observation collapses the wave
Other Interpretations to the Rescue?
Bohm: Quantum potential
Wigner, Penrose: Human consciousness
von Neumann, Wheeler: Participatory universe
Everett, Deutsch: Many-worlds interpretation
Recall: Double-slit experiment
with electron gun and detector
Can we try to trick the electron, by turning on
the detector only as it is passing through the wall?
Delayed Choice Experiment
Expt carried out now will determine whether each photon,
billions of years ago, behaved like a particle or wave
Each quantum process will split the
universe into two or more universes
All the possible universes exist, but
none can communicate with another
Many-Worlds Interpretation
Many-worlds FAQ
Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen (EPR) Paradox
Decay of pion
Electron and positron have opposite spins
EPR Paradox (contd)
Let the electron and positron fly very far apart
Measure the spin of one of them, say the electron
This would instantaneously determine the spin of
the positron
Experimentally verified by Aspect (1982)
Non-Locality of Quantum Mechanics
Events in Region B
instantaneously
dependent upon
events in Region A
Events in Region A
instantaneously
dependent upon
events in Region B
widely separated
regions
Einstein: Spooky action at a distance
Does this contradict special relativity?
In other words, can this be used to transmit
messages faster than light?
NO! Because outcome is completely probabilistic
We would never know in advance whether the
electron is going to be spin up or down
Niels Bohr:
Anyone who is not shocked by quantum theory has
not understood it.
Richard Feynman:
I think I can safely say that nobody understands
quantum mechanics.
Quotes to ponder
J. Horgan, Quantum Philosophy
Scientific American (July 1997)
R.E. Crandall, The Challenge of Large Numbers
Scientific American (Feburary 1997)
Further Reading
Worldview
Quantum mechanics has given us:
Probability waves: we cant know exactly where a particle is at
nor can we know exactly what its momentum is.
Tunneling effects: a particle is permitted to tunnel through a
barrier. We can know the likelihood (probability) it will tunnel,
but we cant know when it will tunnel!
Recall the Newtonian worldview:
If we knew the state of the universe at some time, Newtonian
physics fully explained how the universe would evolve. This
led to a deterministic universe.
The Newtonian worldview is annihilated by the
quantum theory.
Every single interaction is now random! We can calculate the
probability for an event to occur, but we cant guarantee it will
occur!
Philosophical consequences of quantum theory run very deep,
in part because of our inability to comprehend it.
Quantum Mechanics
Quantum mechanics vs. Classical Mechanics
Formulated to explain the behavior
of microscopic systems.
Formulated to explain the behavior of
macroscopic objects.
Newtons second law:
Integrate twice x(t).
Two constants of integration two additional pieces of information required to
uniquely define the state of the system (e.g. x
o
and v
o
).
The state of the system is defined by: FORCES, POSITIONS, VELOCITIES
Knowledge of the initial state of the system can predict future states precisely.
2
2
dt
x d
m ma F ! !
Designed to describe the behavior observed for microscopic particles and systems.
Behavior:
discrete rather than continuous energy levels
photons, electrons and nuclei exhibit both wave and particle nature.
History:
1925 Werner Heisenberg, Max Born and Pascual Jordon introduced matrix-based
mathematical formalism to describe observed quantum mechanical phenomena
1926 Erwin Schrdinger introduced a differential equation and its solution that
equivalently describes equation observed quantum mechanical phenomena
Quantum Mechanics

+ H !
+
t
dt
t d
iJ
QM analogy to
Newtons 2
nd
law
State of the system is defined by a wave function:
+(t) = f + ig
f and g are real functions of coordinates and time
An abstract, complex quantity but related to physically measurable quantities
State is dependent on coordinates (spatial and spin) and time
The time-dependent Schrdinger equation:
A single integration with respect to time is required to obtain +(t), so that only one
constant of integration is required to predict future states of the system.
The Wavefunction

+ H !
+
t
dt
t d
iJ
QM analogy to
Newtons 2
nd
law
The Wavefunction
How can we describe the state of a quantum mechanical system such as nuclear
spins?
Complex wavefunction:
+(t) = +(t,t) description of all knowable information about the state of the
system
What if we want to know if the system is in a given state +(t) at time t? The
probability that the system is in the state given by +(t) at time t is:
P = +*(t)+(t) = +
2
For example, for a single particle at time t

, the wavefunction is +(x,y,z,t

), and the
probability that time t

, the particle is in a given volume of space (dxdydz) is given

by:
+(x,y,z,t

)
2
dxdydz
Spatial and spin coordinates
(independent of time)
Time dependence
probability density
dx
dy
dz
Complex Conjugate
Complex Conjugate +*:
+= f + ig
+* = f ig (replace i with i)
+*+= (f + ig) (f ig) = f
2
ifg + ifg (i
2
)g = f
2
+ g
2
real, non-negative
(as P should be!)
Since the system must exist in some state at time, t, if we integrate over all
coordinates of the system (t represents the generalized coordinates, which may
include spatial coordinates and spin state), the probability density is 1.
Normalization condition:
+*(t)+(t)dt = 1
i.e. the probability of finding the particle somewhere in space is one.
The Schrdinger equation describes the evolution in time of a given system:
Normalization Condition

+ !
+
t H
dt
t d
iJ
The Hamiltonian, H, represents the forces acting on the system, which can be time-
dependent or time-independent.
The Schrdinger Equation

+ !
+
t H
dt
t d
iJ
Hamiltonian = FORCES
constant,
often omitted
The time-independent Schrdinger equation
If the Hamiltonian is time-independent, then the Schrdinger equation can be
solved by separation of variables.
+(t) = ](t) o(t)
The Hamiltonian acts only on the generalized coordinate part of +(t), ](t), since H
is independent of time (i.e. o(t) acts as a constant). Choosing units so that = 1:
Multiplying both sides by +*(t) dt
) ) ) t
dt
t d
i o t ]
o
t ] H !

) )
)
) )
) t
t
d
dt
d
d i

H ! t t ] t ]
o
t t ] t ] * *
time
indep.
time-
dep.
= 1
The time-independent Schrdinger equation
Noting that the wave function is normalized and multiplying by i:
To simplify things, lets define:
So that
Now the goal is to solve this differential equation.
)
) )
) t
t
d i
dt
d
o t t ] t ]
o

H ! *
) )

! t t ] t ] d E H *
)
) t
t
iE
dt
d
o
o
!
The solution is:
This can be seen by differentiating with respect to t:
Now we can write
)
iEt
e t

! o

! !

t iE iEe
dt
t d
iEt
o
o
) ) )
iEt
e t t

! ! +

t ] o t ]
The time-independent Schrdinger equation
Differentiating with respect to time:
Multiplying both sides by i:
Comparing to the original form of the Schrdinger equation, we get
Which is the time-independent Schrdinger equation. The time dependence can
be thought of as a phase factor that cancels when the probability distribution is
calculated:
)
)

+ ! t ] !
+

t iE e iE
dt
t d
iEt
)

+ !
+
t E
dt
t d
i
+ ! + E H
) ) ) 1 * ! ! !
iEt iEt iEt
e e e t t t o o o
The time-independent Schrdinger equation

+ !
+
t H
dt
t d
i
We have just shown that:
H is an operator
E is an energy
+ is the wave function
+ ! + E H
The time-independent Schrdinger equation
Probabilistic nature of QM
If + is a solution to the Schrdinger equation, then so is c+ (c = arbitrary
constant), and c
i
+
i
is also a solution, where each +
i
is a possible state of the
system.
+ isnt really a physical wave. It is an abstract mathematical entity that yields
information about the state of the system.
+ gives information on the probabilities for possible outcomes of measurements of
the systems physical properties.
Quantum mechanics says a lot, but does not really
bring us any closer to the secrets of the Old One. I, at
any rate, am convinced that He does not throw dice.
Albert Einstein
Eigenvalues and Eigenfunctions
Eigenvalue equations:
An operator acts on a function to give another function:
f(x) = g(x)
Where is an operator.
For example, an operator can be defined where represents multiplying by a:
f(x) = af(x)
Depending upon the operator, the new function can be very different from the
original function. However, in a special case, the new function is a multiple of the
original function:
f(x) = Pf(x)
In this case, f(x) is said to be an eigenfunction of with the associated eigenvalue,
P. In the case of the Schrdinger equation with a time-independent Hamiltonian, H
is the operator, + is the eigenfunction and E is the eigenvalue:
H + = E+
Operators
For every observable quantity, A, there is an associated Hermitian operator, A, such
that:
A] = P]
In fact, if there are n allowed states then there are n eigenfunctions, ]
i
, that satisfy:
A]
i
= P
i
]
i
Hermitian Operators
The adjoint of an operator (A

) satisfies the equation:

]*A

= P*]*
Hermitian operators are self-adjoint (A = A

):
This has several implications:
Eigenvalues for Hermitian operators are real
Eigenfunctions for Hermitian operators form a complete orthonormal set:
]
i
*]
j
dt = ]
j
*]
i
dt = o
ij
= Kronecker delta
Hilbert space: a complete set of N orthonormal functions which constitutes a basis
set:
* d * d *

t ] o ! t o ] A A
time on depend can that numbers complex are
n
N
1 n
n n
c c

] ! +
!
Quantum Mechanics
A]
i
= P
i
]
i
The result of making a measurement of A is one of the eigenvalues of A. That is,
only a limited set of outcomes are possible (discrete nature of quantum mechanics).
What is the value we might expect to measure? Expectation Value
The expectation value is the average magnitude of a property sampled over an
ensemble of identically prepared systems. The expectation value, <A>, is the
scalar product of + and A+:
<A> = +*A+dt
If the wavefunction is an eigenfunction of the operator (+ = ]
n
):
<A> = +*A+dt = ]
n
*A]
n
dt = P
n
]
n
*]
n
dt = P
n
Expectation Value
If a system is in state +(t,t), the average of any physical observable C at time t is:
<C> = ]*]dt
If one makes a large number of measurements of C with identical initial state
+(t,0), then one obtains a set of values C
1
, C
2
, , C
N
. The average of C is given
by the rule:
A postulate of quantum mechanics is that the integral and summation above
provide the same value, which is the expectation value.

!
!
N
1 i
i
C
N
1
C
Quantum Mechanics
In general + ]
n
, but
Hence:

!
] ! +
N
1 i
i i
c
j
N
1 j
j j
N
1 j
j
*
j
ij
j
*
i j
*
i
j
N
1 j
j
*
i
N
1 i
j j j
j
*
i
N
1 j
j
*
i
N
1 i
j
N
1 j
j
*
i
N
1 i
*
i
j
N
1 j
j i
N
1 i
i
2
c c c
j i 1
j i 0
d : noting d c c
A : noting d c c
d c c
d c * c
d *
P ! P !
!
{
! o ! t ] ] t ] ] P !
] P ! ] t ] ] !
t ] ] !
t ] ] !
t + + !

! !
! !
! !
! !
! !

A
A
A
A A
probability that c
j
is obtained in a single measurement
Quantum Mechanics
What does this mean?
When A is measured for a single member of an ensemble, the result is one of the
eigenvalues of A, but which one cannot be predicted in advance.
The result means that the eigenvalue P
j
will be obtained in a single measurement
with the probability of c
j
2
.
So, for a single measurement, there are specified values of A that are possible, but
over an ensemble, the expectation value <A> can be a continuous value.
Commutator
AB = BA
[A,B] AB BA
In general, AB BA, so [A,B] 0
e.g. in matrix multiplication, order matters!
If [A,B] = 0, then can move A and B with
respect to each other
EXAMPLE
Example: Time-dependent expectation value for the magnetic moment of
a single spin (I = ):
Since it is a spin nucleus, there are two possible states:
E = + and F =
The wavefunction for the spin in a static magnetic field is:
F
F
E
E
F F E E
]

! ] ] ! +

t iE
e b
t iE
e a c c
Real numbers
a
2
+ b
2
= 1
Energies Stationary states
(eigenfunctions)
Expectation value for Q
z
<
z
> = +*
z
+dt= +*I
z
+dt
z
= I
z
= (a exp(iE
E
t)]
E
* + b exp(iE
F
t)]
F
*) I
z
(a exp(iE
E
t)]
E
+ b exp(iE
F
t)]
F
) dt
We have four terms to multiply:
1) = (a exp(iE
E
t)]
E
*) I
z
(a exp(iE
E
t)]
E
) = a
2
exp(iE
E
t)exp(iE
E
t) ]
E
*I
z
]
E
dt
= a
2
() ]
E
*]
E
dt = a
2
/2 note: I
z
]
E
= ]
E
and ]
E
*]
E
dt = 1
2) = (b exp(iE
F
t)]
F
*) I
z
(a exp(iE
E
t)]
E
) = ba exp(iE
F
t)exp(iE
E
t) ]
F
*I
z
]
E
dt
= ba () exp(i(E
E
E
F
)t ]
F
*]
E
dt = 0 note: ]
F
*]
E
dt = 0 (orthogonal)
3) = (a exp(iE
E
t)]
E
*) I
z
(b exp(iE
F
t)]
F
) = 0 (orthogonal)
4) = (b exp(iE
F
t)]
F
*) I
z
(b exp(iE
F
t)]
F
) = b
2
/2 note: I
z
]
F
= ]
F
Giving:
<
z
> = (/2)(a
2
b
2
)
Expectation value of Q
A similar approach can be used to determine <
x
> and <
y
>:
<
x
> = ab cos([
o
t)
<
y
> = ab sin([
o
t)
The three equations represent a vector of constant magnitude precessing around the
z axis with angular momentum, [
o
. This is equivalent to the Bloch formulation.
e
ia
= cosE + isinE and e
-ia
= cosE isinE
So:
e
ia
e
-ia
= cosE + isinE (cosE isinE) = 2isinE
e
ia
+ e
-ia
= cosE + isinE + cosE isinE = 2cosE
<
x
> = +*
x
+dt = +*I
x
+dt
x
= I
x
= (a exp(iE
E
t)]
E
* + b exp(iE
F
t)]
F
*) I
x
(a exp(iE
E
t)]
E
+ b exp(iE
F
t)]
F
) dt
We have four terms to multiply:
1) = (a exp(iE
E
t)]
E
*) I
x
(a exp(iE
E
t)]
E
) = a
2
exp(iE
E
t)exp(iE
E
t) ]
E
*I
x
]
E
dt
= a
2
() ]
E
*]
F
dt = 0 note: I
x
]
E
= ]
F
and ]
E
*]
F
dt = 0 (orthogonal)
2) = (b exp(iE
F
t)]
F
*) I
x
(a exp(iE
E
t)]
E
) = ba exp(iE
F
t)exp(iE
E
t) ]
F
*I
x
]
E
dt
= ba () exp(i(E
E
E
F
)t ]
F
*]
F
dt = ba () exp(i(E
E
E
F
)t
3) = (a exp(iE
E
t)]
E
*) I
x
(b exp(iE
F
t)]
F
) = ba () exp(i(E
E
E
F
)t
4) = (b exp(iE
F
t)]
F
*) I
x
(b exp(iE
F
t)]
F
) = 0 note: I
x
]
F
= ]
E
Giving:
<
x
> = ab () (exp(i(E
E
E
F
)t) + exp(i(E
E
E
F
)t))
= ab cos((E
E
E
F
)t) = ab cos([
o
t)
Matrix representation of I
Pauli spin matrices (matrix representation of the angular momentum operator for a
single spin system):
|E> and <E| are Dirac notation, ket and bra, and are defined as:
<E|E> = ]
E
*]
E
dt
Orthogonality relationships expressed in this notation:
. J . J 1 0 0 1
1
0
0
1
1 0
0 1
2
1
0
0
2
1
0 1
1 0
2
1
! ! ! !

! !

F E F E
z
I
i
i
I I
y x
0
0
1
1 0 0
1
0
0 1
1
1
0
1 0 1
0
1
0 1
! ! E F ! ! F E
! ! F F ! ! E E

Quantum Mechanics
Operator manipulations:
E !

! F
F ! !

! E
E ! ! ! F
F ! ! ! E
F !

! F
E ! !

! E

i
2
1
0
i
2
1
1
0
0 i
i 0
2
1
I
i
2
1
i
0
2
1
0
1
0 i
i 0
2
1
I
2
1
0
1
2
1
1
0
0 1
1 0
2
1
I
2
1
1
0
2
1
0
1
0 1
1 0
2
1
I
2
1
1
0
2
1
1
0
1 0
0 1
2
1
I
2
1
0
1
2
1
0
1
1 0
0 1
2
1
I
y
y
x
x
z
z
Density Matrix
The density matrix is a tool to describe the state of the spins and their evolution in
time. It treats the behavior of a large ensemble of spins.
Considering one nucleus, A, the expectation value for the magnetic moment is:
<
xA
> = <+|
xA
|+> =
A
<+|I
xA
|+>
I
xA
is the operator of the x-component of the angular momentum. Considering an
ensemble of spins:
M
xA
= N
o
<
xA
> = N
o

A
<+|I
xA
|+>
where N
o
is the number of spins in a particular volume. As we have discussed, the
wavefunction can be expressed as a linear combination of eigenfunctions, so that
we can place <+|I
xA
|+> in matrix form.
Density Matrix

!

!

v ! v v ! + +
! ! + ! +

m
nm
m
*
n
n m
m
nm
*
n
n
m
m
nm
m
m
m 2
m
m
m 1
*
n
*
2
*
1
n
2
1
nn 2 n 1 n
n 2 22 21
n 1 12 11
*
n
*
2
*
1
xA
nn 2 n 1 n
n 2 22 21
n 1 12 11
xA
*
n
*
2
*
1
n
2
1
I c c c I c
c I
c I
c I
c c c
c
c
c
I I I
I I I
I I I
c c c I
I I I
I I I
I I I
I c c c
c
c
c
/
.
/
.
/ / /
.
.
.
.
/ / /
.
.
.
/
Density Matrix
Now considering the entire ensemble:
where I
nm
are matrix elements of the operator, I
xA
. The time-dependent variables
are in the averaged products:
They can be arranged in a matrix to form the Density Matrix:
Thus, the Density Matrix is Hermitian.
*
n m
m
nm
n
A o xA
c c I N M

!
*
n m
c c
*
mn nm
*
n m mn
nn 2 n 1 n
n 2 22 21
n 1 12 11
d d and c c d where
d d d
d d d
d d d
D ! ! !

.
/ / /
.
.
Density Matrix
Now the macroscopic magnetization can be written in terms of the Density Matrix:
This provides the formula for calculating the observable magnetization: Multiply
each element of I
xA
by the complex conjugate of the corresponding element of the
Density Matrix and add the products. Multiply this by N
o

A
.
*
nm
m
nm
n
A o mn
m
nm
n
A o xA
d I N d I N M

!

!
Important Quantum Effects in Our World
I Lasers
Usually light is emitted by an excited atom is
in a a random direction - light from many atoms
goes in all directions direction and energy
have uncertainty for light emitted from any one atom
Excited Atoms
Photons
What is special about a Laser??
Important Quantum Effects in Our World
I Lasers - continued
Lasers work because of the quantum properties
of photons -- one photon tends to cause another to
be emitted one photon cannot be distinguished
from another
If there are many excited atoms, the photons can
cascade -- very intense, collimated light is emitted
forming a beam of precisely the same color light
Excited Atoms
Many Photons
One Photon
Important Quantum Effects in Our World
I Lasers - continued
Since photons cannot be distinguished, which atom
emitted a given photon is completely uncertain
But that means:
The direction and energy can be very certain!
If there are many excited atoms, the photons can
cascade -- very intense, collimated light is emitted
forming a beam of precisely the same color light
Excited Atoms
Many Photons
One Photon
Superconductivity
Discovered in 1911 by K. Onnes
Completely baffling in classical physics
Important Quantum Effects in Our World
Explained in 1957 by Bardeen, Cooper And Shrieffer
at the Univ. of Illinois. (Bardeen is the only person
to win two Nobel Prizes in the same field!)
Due to all the electrons acting together to form a
single quantum state -- electrons flow around a wire
like the electrons in an atom!
Current flowing without loss
-- flows forever!
wire
High - Temperature Superconductors
Discovered in 1987 (Nobel Prize)
(Still not understood!)
Demonstration
Magnet
Superconductor
levitated above
magnet - repelled
due to currents in
superconductor
Summar
y
Niels Bohr (1912) realized the significance that the quantization
could explain the stability of the atom
Schrodinger (1926): Equation for wave function +(x,t) for a
particle --- Still Today the Basic Eq. of Quantum Mechanics.
Explains all of Chemistry!
( +(x,t) )
2
is probablity of finding the particle at point x and
time t. More about this later.
Heisenberg showed that quantum mechanics leads to
uncertainty relations for pairs of variables
Quantum Theory says that we can only measure individual
events that have a range of possibilities
We can never predict the result of a future measurement with
certainty
More next time on how quantum theory forces us to reexamine
our beliefs about the nature of the world
(p (x u h/2 (E (t u h/2
(Extra) Example: Harmonic Oscillator
Classical situation: Mass attached to a spring.
The spring exerts a force on the mass which is proportional to the
distance that the spring is stretched or compressed. This force then
produces an acceleration of the mass which leads to an oscillating motion
of the mass. The frequency of this oscillation is determined by the
stiffness of the spring and the amount of mass.
Quantum situation: suppose F is proportional to distance, then
potential energy is proportional to distance squared.
Solutions to Schrodinger Eqn:
What is shown here?
Possible wave functions +(x) at a
fixed time t!
How does this change in time?
They oscillate with the classical
frequency!
What distinguishes the different
solutions?
The Energy! (Classically this
corresponds to the amplitude of the
oscillation) Note: not all energies are
possible! They are quantized!
E = 3/2 h[
E = 5/2 h[
E = 7/2 h[
E = 1/2 h[
(Extra) Example: Hydrogen atom
Potential Energy is proportional to 1/R (since Force
is proportional to 1/R
2
). What are the solutions to
Schrodingers equation and how are they related to
Bohrs orbits?
The Bohr orbits correspond to
the solutions shown which have
definite energies.
The energies which
correspond to these wave
functions are identical to Bohrs
values!
For energies above the ground
state (n=1), there are more than
one wave function with the same
energy.
Some of these wave functions
peak at the value for the Bohr
radius for that energy, but
others dont!
Radial Wavefunctions for
the Hydrogen Atom
( vertical lines mBohr radii )
The structure of quantum mechanics
linear algebra
Dirac notation
4 postulates of
quantum mechanics
1. How to describe quantum states of a closed system.
2. How to describe quantum dynamics.
3. How to describe measurements of a quantum system.
4. How to describe quantum state of a composite system.
state vectors and state space
unitary evolution
projective measurements
tensor products
, , A ] o
Example: qubits
(two-level quantum systems)
0
1
E F 0 1
E F !
2 2
| | | | 1
Normalization
0 and 1 are the
computational basis states
photons
electron spin
nuclear spin
etcetera
All we do is draw little arrows on a piece of paper - that's all.
- Richard Feynman
Postulate 1: Rough Form
Quantum mechanics does not prescribe the state spaces
of specific systems, such as electrons. Thats the job of
a physical theory like quantum electrodynamics.
Associated to any quantum system is a complex vector
space known as state space.
Example: well work mainly with qubits, which have state
space C
2
.
0 1
E
E F
F

|

|
The state of a closed quantum system is a unit vector in
state space.
A few conventions
This is the ket notation.
We write vectors in state space as: ]
We always assume that our physical systems have
finite-dimensional state spaces.
0 1 2 1
0
1
2
1
0 1 2 ... 1

:
d
d
d ] E E E E
E
E
E
E

!



!



|
Qudit
d
C
(= ) ]
&
nearly
v
Quantum not gate:
0 1 ; 1 0 . X X ! !
X Input qubit Output qubit
0 1
0
1

0 1
1 0
X

!

|
E F p 0 1 ?
E F E F p 0 1 1 0
Matrix representation:
General dynamics of a closed quantum system
(including logic gates) can be represented as a
unitary matrix.
Dynamics: quantum logic gates
a b
A
c d

!

|
Hermitian conjugation; taking the adjoint
Unitary matrices
)
*
T
A A !
* *
* *
a c
b d

!


|
A is said to be unitary if

AA A A I ! !
We usually write unitary matrices as U.

Example:
0 1 0 1 1 0
XX
1 0 1 0 0 1
I

! ! !

| | |
Nomenclature tips
matrix
=
(linear) operator
=
(linear) transformation
=
(linear) map
=
quantum gate (modulo unitarity)
Postulate 2
The of a is described evolution closed quantum system
unitary transforma
by a
tion.
' U ] ] !
Why unitaries?
Unitary maps are the only linear maps that preserve
normalization.
' U ] ] !
implies ' 1 U ] ] ] ! ! !
Exercise: prove that unitary evolution
preserves normalization.
0 1
0 1 ; X 1 0 ; X
1 0
X

! ! !

|
X
Y
Z
Pauli gates
1
gate (AKA or )
x
X W W
2
Y gate (AKA or )
y
W W
0
Notation: I W |
0
0 1 ; Y 1 0 ; Y
0
i
Y i i
i

! ! !

|
1 0
0 0 ; Z 1 1 ; Z
0 1
Z

! ! !

|
3
Z gate (AKA or )
z
W W
Measuring a qubit: a rough and ready prescription
0 1 ] E F !
Quantum mechanics DOES NOT allow us to determine and . E F
We can, however, read out limited information about and . E F
Measuring in the computational basis
2 2
(0) ; (1) P P E F ! !
Measurement the system, leaving it in
a state 0 or 1 determi
unavoidably dis
ned by the outc
turbs
ome.
Measuring a qubit
0
1
1 1
0 1
2 2

1
(0) (1)
2
P P ! !
More general measurements
1
Let , ..., be an orthonormal basis for .
d
d
e e C
1
2
A gives re "measuremen s t of in the basis , ..., "
(
ult
with probability . )
d
j
j e e
P j e
]
] ! y
* *
Reminder:
E G
E G F o
F o

y |

| |
Measurement the system, leaving it in a state
deter
unavoidabl
mined by t
y d
he
istur
outc
bs
ome.
j
e
Qubit example
0 1 ] E F !
0 1 0 1
Introduce orthonormal basis
2 2

! !
)
2
1
1
Pr + =
1
2
E
F

y

| |
2
2
E F
!
2
=
2
E F
2
Pr( )
2
E F
!
Inner products and duals
The inner product is used to define the of a vecto dual r . ]
)
If lives in then the of is a function
defined b
du
y
a
:
l

d
d
C
C C
] ]
] ] o ] o p | y
Young man, in mathematics you dont understand
things, you just get used to them. - John von Neumann
Example:
)
1
0 0 1 =
0
E
E F E
F

! y

| |
Simplified notation: ] o
) )
) )
*
*

Properties: , since , ,
, since , ,
a b b a a b b a
A b b A A b c b A c b A c
! !
m ! !
Duals as row vectors
)
*
Suppose = and = . Then
,
j j
j j
j j
j
a a j b b j
a b a b a b ! !

1
* *
1 2 2
b
a a b


!
|


|

* *
1 2
identificat This suggests the very useful of with
the row vector .
ion a
a a
|

Postulate 3: rough form

1
2
If we measure in an orthonormal basis , ..., , then
we obtain the result with probability ) . (
j
d
P j
e
j e
e
]
]
!
The measurement the system, leaving it in a state
determined by the
dis
outcome.
turbs
j
e
The measurement problem
Quantum system
Measuring apparatus
Rest of the Universe
Postulate 3 Postulates 1 and 2
Research problem: solve the measurement problem.
Irrelevance of global phase
1
2
Suppose we measure in the orthonormal basis , ..., .
Pr( Then ) .
d
j
e e
j e ]
]
!
2
1
2
Suppose we measure in the orthonormal basis , ..., .
Then Pr ) . (
i
d
i
j j
j e
e e
e
e
e
U
U
]
]
] ! !
global phase factor unobservab The is thus , and we may
identify the states and .
le
i
i
e
e
U
U
] ]
Revised postulate 1
Associated to any quantum system is a complex inner
product space known as state space.
The state of a closed quantum system is a unit vector
in state space.
Note: These inner product spaces are often called
Hilbert spaces.
Multiple-qubit systems
00 01 10 11
00 01 10 11 E E E E
E !
2
( , ) | |
xy
P x y
Measurement in the computational basis:
General state of n qubits:
_ a
E

0,1
n
x
x
x
)
Classically, requires 2 bits to describe the state.
n
O
Hilbert space is a big place - Carlton Caves
Perhaps [] we need a mathematical theory of quantum
automata. [] the quantum state space has far greater
capacity than the classical one: [] in the quantum case
we get the exponential growth [] the quantum behavior
of the system might be much more complex than its
classical simulation. Yu Manin (1980)
Postulate 4
The state space of a composite physical system is the
tensor product of the state spaces of the component systems.
Example:
2 2 4
Two-qubit state space is C C C !
Computational basis states: 0 0 ; 0 1 ; 1 0 ; 1 1
Alternative notations: 0 0 ; 0, 0 ; 00 .
Properties
)
( ) ( ) z v w z v w v z w ! !
1 2 1 2
( ) v v w v w v w !
1 2 1 2
( ) v w w v w v w !
Some conventions implicit in Postulate 4
If Alice prepares her system in state , and Bob prepares
his in state , then the joint state is .
a
b a b
Alice Bob
Conversely, if the joint state is then we say that
Alice's system is , and Bob's system i in the state in
the stat
s
e .
a b
a
b

)
means "Alice that applies
is applied to the joint syste
the gate to her system"
m.
U I U
)
A B v w A v B w !
) )
=
i i
a b e a e b
U U

Suppose a two-qubit system is in the
state 0.8 00 0.6 11 . A NOT gate is applied to the
second qubit, and a measurement performed in the
computational basis. What are the
Worked exe
probabilit
rcise
o
:
ies f

r the
possible measurement outcomes?
Suppose a NOT gate is applied to the second qubit of the state
0.4 00 0.3 01 0.2 10 0.1 11 .
)
)
The resulting state is
0.4 00 0.3 01 0.2 10 0.1 11 I X
0.4 01 0.3 00 0.2 11 0.1 10 . !
Examples
Quantum entanglement
Alice Bob
00 11
2
]

!
a b ] {
Schroedinger (1935): I would not call
[entanglement] one but rather the characteristic
trait of quantum mechanics, the one that
enforces its entire departure from classical lines
of thought.
) )
0 1 0 1 ] E F o !
00 10 01 11 E F Eo Fo !
0 or 0. F p ! !
Summary
Postulate 1: A closed quantum system is described by a
unit vector in a complex inner product space known as
state space.
Postulate 2: The evolution of a closed quantum system is
described by a unitary transformation.
' U ] ] !
1
2
If we measure in an orthonormal basis
,..., , then we obtain the result with probability
( ) .
Postulate 3 :
d
j
e e j
P j e
]
] !
The measurement disturbs the system, leaving it in a state
determined by the outcome.
j
e
Postulate 4: The state space of a composite physical system
is the tensor product of the state spaces of the component
systems.
Domains of Physics
Speed
Size
Relativistic
Quantum
Mechanics
Quantum
Mechanics
Relativity
Classical
Mechanics
Newtonian
Cosmology
Relativistic
Cosmology
c
Nucleus
(10
-14
m)
Atom
(10
-10
m)
Galaxy
(10
20
m)
c/10
Paul Dirac (1902-84)
First to try to combine quantum
mechanics with special relativity
Obtained the relativistic version of
Schrdingers equation in 1928
Known as the Dirac equation:
The Dirac Equation
Appears to have solutions with negative energies
Vacuum consists of a sea of such negative-
energy particles
Dirac identified holes in this sea as antiparticles,
with opposite charge to normal particles
He (wrongly) identified the antiparticle of the
electron with the proton
Positron: Antiparticle of the Electron
Discovered in cosmic rays by Carl Anderson in
1932
Has the same mass as
the electron but positive
charge
Anderson saw a track in a cloud chamber left by something
positively charged, and with the same mass as an electron
Every particle has an antiparticle
1955: antiproton
1960: antineutron
1965: anti-deuteron
1995: anti-hydrogen atom (only 9 produced!)
The photon is its own antiparticle!
hat if we bring a particle and antiparticle togeth
Particle Antiparticle
Annihilation / Creation
A particle can annihilate with its antiparticle to
form gamma rays
An example whereby matter is
converted into pure energy by
Einsteins formula E = mc
2
Conversely, gamma rays with
sufficiently high energy can turn
into a particle antiparticle pair
Particle antiparticle tracks in a bubble
chamber
How much antimatter is there in the universe?
A possible cloud of antimatter at the centre of our galaxy?
Cannot tell just by looking
But if there are antimatter stars and galaxies, then
their boundaries with normal matter will be
sources of gamma rays
We do not detect such gamma
rays in significant amounts
universe is mainly made
up of matter
Why is there so little antimatter in the universe
A very small asymmetry between particles and
antiparticles is predicted by the weak force
During the big bang, for every billion antimatter
particles produced, there were a billion and one
matter particles
This one matter particle out of a billion is all that
is left today!
Present: Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
Future: Antimatter propulsion?
problems with manufacture and storage
Uses of Antimatter
A short-lived radioactive
substance such as
18
F is
injected into the bloodstream
as glucose
It would decay by emitting a
positron, which would annihilate
with an electron in the blood to
produce gamma rays
Gamma rays fly off in opposite
directions into the detectors.
This enables the location of the
How PET Works
PET Images of the Brain
Quantum Field Theory
Modern replacement of Diracs theory by
Feynman and others
A relativistic version of quantum theory in which
the number of particles is not fixed
since E=mc
2
means energy can be converted
into particles and vice versa
Antiparticles and Backward Time Travel
Feynman discovered that a particle going
backwards
in time is mathematically equivalent to an
antiparticle going forwards in time
time
space
electron moving
forwards in time
electron moving
backwards in time
time
space
electron moving
forwards in time
positron moving
forwards in time
time
space
annihilation of
electron-positron pair
creation of
electron-positron pair

Such a CTC is equivalent to an electronpositron

pair created at A and annihilated at B
Closed Timelike Curve
time
space
B

A
electro
n
positron
What is a vacuum?
Space with nothing in it
Energy of vacuum is therefore zero
But isnt this inconsistent with the energy-time
uncertainty principle?
Vacuum not really a vacuum?
Energy of the vacuum can fluctuate
By E = mc
2
, energy is equivalent to matter
Energy fluctuations can appear as additional
particles, called virtual particles
Virtual Particles
No law of physics is violated if virtual
particles annihilate within a certain time
Casimir Effect
Put two metal plates in a vacuum
Only virtual particles of certain wavelengths can
appear between the plates, while those of any
wavelength can appear on the outside
Result is a net force pushing
the plates together
Black Hole Evaporation
Caused by virtual particles appearing just
outside the event horizon
A virtual particle could cross
the event horizon and thus will
not be able to annihilate with
its partner
To ensure energy conservation:
escaping particle must turn into a real
particle with positive energy, while trapped
particle carries negative energy into the
black hole