The Evolution of Species

   
Species

 Is a Latin word meaning “kind” or 
“appearance”

   
Anagenesis vs.Cladogenesis
(microevolution vs.macroevolution)

 Anagenesis ­ evolution 
within a population that 
results in variation but 
no speciation
 Cladogenesis ­ 
evolution within a 
population that leads to 
new species over time

21.1
   
(a) Anagenesis (b) Cladogenesis
Biological Species
 a population whose members can
interbreed and produce
Slide 4 fertile offspring
but are unable to produce fertile
offspring with members of other
populations
South Rim

North Rim 21.2

   
Kaibab Squirrel Abert’s Squirrel
 What are the limitations of the biological 
species concept?

 Under what conditions will it not work?

   
21.2
 Similarity between different species. The eastern
meadowlark (Sturnella magna, left) and the western
meadowlark (Sturnella neglecta, right) have similar
body shapes and colorations. Nevertheless, they are
distinct biological species because their songs and other
behaviors are different enough to prevent interbreeding
should they meet in the wild.

Diversity within a species. As diverse as we may be

in appearance, all humans belong to a single biological
species (Homo sapiens), defined by our capacity
to interbreed.

21.2
   
Barriers to Mating Between
Organisms (prezygotic barriers)
 Habitat isolation ­ different habitats prevent 
mating
 Behavioral isolation ­ different behaviors 
prevent mating
 Temporal isolation ­ mate at different times of 
year
 Gametic isolation ­ sperm/egg incompatibility
 Mechanical isolation ­ unable to mate

21.3
   
 Production of Unfit
Offspring (postzygotic barriers)
 Offspring have reduced viability (they 
don’t live long)
 Offspring are infertile or their offspring 
are infertile

21.3
   
 What is the result of these barriers?

   
 How can speciation occur?
Speciation can occur in two ways
 Allopatric speciation
 Sympatric speciation

(a) (b)

(a) Allopatric speciation. A (b) Sympatric speciation. A small

population forms a new population becomes a new species
21.4
 
species while geographically without geographic separation.
  isolated from its parent
population.
 Allopatric (“Other
Country”) Speciation
 In allopatric speciation
 Gene flow is interrupted or reduced when a 
population is divided into two or more 
geographically isolated subpopulations

A. harrisi A. leucurus

21.4   
 Sympatric (“Same
Country”) Speciation
 In sympatric speciation
 Speciation takes place in geographically 
overlapping populations
 Caused by polyploidy ­ an individual with 
an extra set of chromosomes (4n instead of 2n)

21.4   
 Adaptive Radiation
 the evolution of diversely adapted species 
from a common ancestor upon introduction to 
new environmental opportunities

1.3 million years

Dubautia laxa
MOLOKA'I
KAUA'I MAUI
5.1
Argyroxiphium sandwicense
million O'AHU LANAI
years 3.7 HAWAI'I
million 0.4
years million
years

Dubautia waialealae

21.5   
Dubautia scabra Dubautia linearis
 The Tempo of Speciation
 The fossil record
 Includes many episodes in which new species 
appear suddenly in a geologic stratum, persist 
essentially unchanged through several strata, 
and then apparently disappear
 Punctuated equilibrium 
 describes these periods of apparent stasis 
punctuated by sudden change
21.6
   
 The punctuated
equilibrium model
 Contrasts with a 
model of gradual 
change throughout a 
species’ existence

Time
(a) Gradualism model. Species (b) Punctuated equilibrium
descended from a common model. A new species
ancestor gradually diverge changes most as it buds
more and more in their from a parent species and
morphology as they acquire then changes little for the
unique adaptations. rest of its existence.

21.6   
Macroevolutionary change
 Is the cumulative change during 
thousands of small speciation episodes

   
 How do complex
structures evolve?
 The eye has had 
Pigmented cells
(photoreceptors) Pigmented
cells

similar functions 
Epithelium

during all stages of  Nerve fibers Nerve fibers

their evolution
(a) Patch of pigmented cells. (b) Eyecup. The slit shell
The limpet Patella has a simple mollusc Pleurotomaria
patch of photoreceptors. has an eyecup. Cornea
Fluid-filled cavity Cellular
fluid
Epithelium (lens)

Optic Pigmented
nerve layer (retina) Optic nerve
(c) Pinhole camera-type eye. (d) Eye with primitive lens. The
The Nautilus eye functions Cornea marine snail Murex has
like a pinhole camera a primitive lens consisting of a mass of
(an early type of camera crystal-like cells. The cornea is a
lacking a lens). transparent region of epithelium
Lens (outer skin) that protects the eye
and helps focus light.

Retina
(e) Complex camera-type eye. The squid Loligo has a complex

21.7   
eye whose features (cornea, lens, and retina), though similar to
those of vertebrate eyes, evolved independently.
 Evolution of the Genes That
Control Development
 Genes that program development
 Control the rate, timing, and spatial pattern 
of changes in an organism’s form as it 
develops into an adult

21.8
   
 Allometric growth

 Is the genetically controlled proportioning 
that helps give a body its specific form

(a) Differential growth rates in a human. The arms and legs

lengthen more during growth than the head and trunk, as
can be seen in this conceptualization of an individual at
different ages all rescaled to the same height.
Newborn 2 5 15 Adult
Age (years)

21.8
   
 Different allometric
patterns
 Contribute to the contrasting shapes of 
human and chimpanzee skulls

Comparison of chimpanzee and human skull

growth. The fetal skulls of humans and chimpanzees
are similar in shape. Allometric growth transforms the
rounded skull and vertical face of a newborn chimpanzee Chimpanzee fetus Chimpanzee adult
into the elongated skull and sloping face characteristic of
adult apes. The same allometric pattern of growth occurs in
humans, but with a less accelerated elongation of the jaw
relative to the rest of the skull.

21.8
    Human fetus Human adult