RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

First

HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Nostrils

Nasopharynx

Oral pharynx

Glottis

Trachea

Right and left bronchi

Bronchioles

Alveolus

 It has 3 main function; warmed the air, moisten the air, and filter the air (using soft hairs and mucous membrane.

pharynx has the epiglottis that prevents food from entering the trachea. The upper part of the trachea contains the larynx. The vocal cords are two bands of tissue that extend across the opening of the larynx.

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It length is 10 cm placed in neck and chest cavity (torak). It s walls is thin and stiff, and there are cartilage ring around it. And it has cilia layer with function to filter dust or dirt which going to enter the lung.

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 Bronchi carry air in and out of the lungs. Bronchi are reinforced to prevent their collapse and are lined with ciliated epithelium and mucus-producing cells. Bronchi branch into smaller and smaller tubes known as bronchioles.

The lungs are large, lobed, paired organs in the chest (also known as the thoracic cavity). Thin sheets of epithelium (pleura) separate the inside of the chest cavity from the outer surface of the lungs. The bottom of the thoracic cavity is formed by the diaphragm.

Bronchioles terminate in grape-like sac clusters known as alveoli. Alveoli are surrounded by a network of thin-walled capillaries. Only about 0.2 m separate the alveoli from the capillaries due to the extremely thin walls of both structures. Only in the alveoli does actual gas exchange takes place. There are some 300 million alveoli in two adult lungs. These provide a surface area of some 160 m2 (almost equal to the singles area of a tennis court and 80 times the area of our skin).

Breathing
In mammals, the diaphragm divides the body cavity into the abdominal cavity, which contains the viscera (e.g., stomach and intestines) and the thoracic cavity, which contains the heart and lungs. The inner surface of the thoracic cavity and the outer surface of the lungs are lined with pleural membranes which adhere to each other. If air is introduced between them, the adhesion is broken and the natural elasticity of the lung causes it to collapse. This can occur from trauma. And it is sometimes induced deliberately to allow the lung to rest. In either case, reinflation occurs as the air is gradually absorbed by the tissues. Because of this adhesion, any action that increases the volume of the thoracic cavity causes the lungs to expand, drawing air into them. During inspiration (inhaling), The external intercostals muscles contract, lifting the ribs up and out. The diaphragm contracts, drawing it down . During expiration (exhaling), these processes are reversed and the natural elasticity of the lungs returns them to their normal volume. At rest, we breath 15-18 times a minute exchanging about 500 ml of air.

 In more vigorous expiration, The internal intercostals muscles draw the ribs down and inward The wall of the abdomen contracts pushing the stomach and liver upward. Under these conditions, an average adult male can flush his lungs with about 4 liters of air at each breath. This is called the vital capacity. Even with maximum expiration, about 1200 ml of residual air remain. During expiration (exhaling), these processes are reversed and the natural elasticity of the lungs returns them to their normal volume. At rest, we breath 15-18 times a minute exchanging about 500 ml of air. The table shows what happens to the composition of air when it reaches the alveoli. Some of the oxygen dissolves in the film of moisture covering the epithelium of the alveoli. From here it diffuses into the blood in a nearby capillary. It enters a red blood cell and combines with the hemoglobin therein. At the same time, some of the carbon dioxide in the blood diffuses into the alveoli from which it can be exhaled.

Composition of atmospheric air and expired air in a typical subject. Note that only a fraction of the oxygen inhaled is taken up by the lungs.

Component

Atmospheric Air (%)

Expired Air (%)

N2 (plus inert gases) O2 CO2 H 2O

78.62 20.85 0.03 0.5 100.0%

74.9 15.3 3.6 6.2 100.0%

The ease with which oxygen and carbon dioxide can pass between air and blood is clear from this electron micrograph of two alveoli (Air) and an adjacent capillary from the lung of a laboratory mouse. Note the thinness of the epithelial cells (EP) that line the alveoli and capillary (except where the nucleus is located). At the closest point, the surface of the red blood cell is only 0.7 m away from the air in the alveolus.

The Alveoli and Gas Exchange

Diffusion is the movement of materials from a higher to a lower concentration. The differences between oxygen and carbon dioxide concentrations are measured by partial pressures. The greater the difference in partial pressure the greater the rate of diffusion. Respiratory pigments increase the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood. Humans have the red-colored pigment hemoglobin as their respiratory pigment. Hemoglobin increases the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood between 65 and 70 times. Each red blood cell has about 250 million hemoglobin molecules, and each milliliter of blood contains 1.25 X 1015 hemoglobin molecules. Oxygen concentration in cells is low (when leaving the lungs blood is 97% saturated with oxygen), so oxygen diffuses from the blood to the cells when it reaches the capillaries. Carbon dioxide concentration in metabolically active cells is much greater than in capillaries, so carbon dioxide diffuses from the cells into the capillaries. Water in the blood combines with carbon dioxide to form bicarbonate. This removes the carbon dioxide from the blood so diffusion of even more carbon dioxide from the cells into the capillaries continues yet still manages to "package" the carbon dioxide for eventual passage out of the body.

y In the alveoli capillaries, bicarbonate combines with a

hydrogen ion (proton) to form carbonic acid, which breaks down into carbon dioxide and water. The carbon dioxide then diffuses into the alveoli and out of the body with the next exhalation.

Second

DISEASES AT HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Pneumonia is an infection of the alveoli. It can be caused by many kinds of both bacteria (e.g., Streptococcus pneumoniae) and viruses. Tissue fluids accumulate in the alveoli reducing the surface area exposed to air. If enough alveoli are affected, the patient may need supplemental oxygen.

Pharynxitis is inflamed at pharynx which caused by bacteria or virus infection, and smoking. The patient will feel hurt when eat or when pharynx dried.

Emphysema
In this disorder, the delicate walls of the alveoli break down, reducing the gas exchange area of the lungs. The condition develops slowly and is seldom a direct cause of death. However, the gradual loss of gas exchange area forces the heart to pump ever-larger volumes of blood to the lungs in order to satisfy the body's needs. The added strain can lead to heart failure. The immediate cause of emphysema seems to be the release of proteolytic enzymes as part of the inflammatory process that follows irritation of the lungs. Most people avoid this kind of damage during infections, etc. by producing an enzyme inhibitor (a serpin) called alpha-1 antitrypsin. Those rare people who inherit two defective genes for alpha-1 antitrypsin are particularly susceptible to developing emphysema.

In asthma, periodic constriction of the bronchi and bronchioles makes it more difficult to breathe in and, especially, out. Attacks of asthma can be triggered by airborne irritants such as chemical fumes and cigarette smoke airborne particles to which the patient is allergic.

Diptheri is infection disease which caused by bacteria Corynebacterium diphterial and arouse Pharynxitis and larynxitis.

Asfiction is intrusion in transport oxygen caused by intrusion in function of lung or another tissue.

Tuberculosis caused by bacteria Mycobacterium tuberculosae. Infected part in lung form tubercle which expand in lungs.

Hypoxia is less of oxygen in tissues.

Acidosis caused by increasing concentration of carbonate acid and bicarbonate acid. Cyanosis is increasing deoxygenize hemoglobin in caviler which cause the skin turn blue.

Third

ANIMALS RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Water which contains oxygen diffuse to cells in it s body surface (koanosit). In mitochondria at koanosit cell, oxygen used to apart organic molecules become anorganic molecules while releasing carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide will dissolve in water, flow to spongosol and finally flow out from osculum.
Flatworms and annelids use their outer surfaces as gas exchange surfaces. Earthworms have a series of thin-walled blood vessels known as capillaries. Gas exchange occurs at capillaries located throughout the body as well as those in the respiratory surface.

Coelenterate consist of 2 layers; epidermis (from ectoderm) , and gastro dermis (from endoderm). Gas exchange happens as diffusion at it s body surface. It also has another organ to help It s respiration which placed at gastro dermis (sifonoglifa).

Many terrestrial animals have their respiratory surfaces inside the body and connected to the outside by a series of tubes. Tracheae are these tubes that carry air directly to cells for gas exchange. Spiracles are openings at the body surface that lead to tracheae that branch into smaller tubes known as tracheoles. Body movements or contractions speed up the rate of diffusion of gases from tracheae into body cells. However, tracheae will not function well in animals whose body is longer than 5 cm.

y In most fish the respiration takes

place through gills. Lungfish, however, do possess one or two lungs. The labyrinth fishes have developed a special organ that allows them to take advantage of the oxygen of the air, but is not a true lung. The rare breath fish also has two lungs. y Gills greatly increase the surface area for gas exchange. Gills typically are convoluted outgrowths containing blood vessels covered by a thin epithelial layer. Typically gills are organized into a series of plates and may be internal (as in crabs and fish). Gills are very efficient at removing oxygen from water: there is only 1/20 the amount of oxygen present in water as in the same volume of air. Water flows over gills in one direction while blood flows in the opposite direction through gill capillaries. This countercurrent flow maximizes oxygen transfer.

Amphibians use their skin as a respiratory surface. Frogs eliminate carbon dioxide 2.5 times as fast through their skin as they do through their lungs. Constraints of water loss dictate that terrestrial animals must develop more efficient lungs. Besides that amphibians also use external gills. Gills greatly increase the surface area for gas exchange.

The anatomical structure of the lungs is less complex in reptiles than in mammals, with reptiles lacking the extensive airway tree structure found in mammalian lungs. Gas exchange in reptiles still occurs in alveoli, however. Reptiles do not possess a diaphragm. Thus, breathing occurs via a change in the volume of the body cavity which is controlled by contraction of intercostals muscles in all reptiles except turtles. In turtles, contraction of specific pairs of flank muscles governs inspiration or expiration.

The respiratory system of birds differs significantly from that found in mammals, containing unique anatomical features such as air sacs. The lungs of birds also do not have the capacity to inflate as birds lack a diaphragm and a pleural cavity. Gas exchange in birds occurs between air capillaries and blood capillaries, rather than in alveoli. See Avian respiratory system for a detailed description of these and other features.