Process and Measurement Capability Analysis

Chapter 7 8 Introduction to to Statistical Quality Control Introduction Statistical Quality Control, 6th 1

Process Capability
Process Capability is the study of the variability of the quality characteristics and its relation with specification. Natural tolerance limits are a measure of process variability.

UNTL ! Q  3W LNTL ! Q  3W

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Uses of process capability data:

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Approaches to Process capability analysis

1. Histograms or probability plots. 2. Control Charts and 3. Designed Experiments

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Process capability analysis using a histogram or a probability plot

Alternatively one may use stemandleaf diagram Data collection steps: At least 100 observations 1. Select representative machine(s)
Collect the data such that variability among workstations or heads can be isolated. Cutting speed, rpm, feed, depth of cut,

2. Select the operating conditions

3. Select a representative operator 4. Record the unit production date

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Example: Glass Container Data

Bursting strengths for100 glass containers

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The shape of the histogram implies that the distribution of bursting strength is approximately normal.

x ! 264.06 and s ! 32.02

The process natural tolerance limits are

x s 3s or 264 s 96 Approximately 99.73% of the bottles will burst between 168 and 360 psi.

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Reasons for Poor Process Capability

Process may have good potential capability

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Probability Plotting
Moderate small samples produce reasonable results

Let n be the number of observations Arrange the observations in ascending order Plot the points xi ,(i  0.5) / n

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Normal probability paper

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Example
i
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
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x
197 200 215 221 231 242 258 265 271 277 278 280 290 301 318 346

(i - 0.5)/n
0.03125 0.09375 0.15625 0.21875 0.28125 0.34375 0.40625 0.46875 0.53125 0.59375 0.65625 0.71875 0.78125 0.84375 0.90625 0.96875

16 observations on glass container bursting strength

and W could be estimated from the plot

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 The distribution may not be normal; other types of probability plots can be useful in determining the appropriate distribution. The conclusion of normality is subjective

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Process capability ratios

USL  LSL Cp ! 6W
W can be estimated from S or from R / d 2

! USL  LSL Cp 6W

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Example
R ! 0.32521 n ! 5, d 2 ! 2.326 W ! R / d 2 ! 0.1398 Specification limits are (1,2) then Cp ! 2 1 ! 1.192 6 * 0.1398

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Proportion of the tolerance interval used by the process

100 P! Cp

For the hard bake process:

P! 100 ! 83.89 1.192

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One-Sided PCR
For upper specification : C pu For lower specification : Q  LSL C pl ! 3W USL  Q ! 3W

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Interpretation of the PCR

Cp 0.25 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1 1.10 1.20 1.30 1.40 1.50 1.60 1.70 1.80 2
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2-sided specs 453,255 133,614 71,861 35,729 16,395 6,934 2,700 967 318 96 27 7 2 0.34 0.067 0.00197

1-sided specs 226,627 66,807 35,930 17,864 8,198 3,467 1,350 483 159 48 13 3 1 0.17 0.03 0.001

Fall out rate in defectives per million for a normally distributed characteristics that is centered for a statistically controlled process.

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Assumptions for Interpretation of Numbers in the Table

1. The quality characteristic has a normal distribution 2. The process is in statistical control 3. For the 2-sided specifications, the mean is centered between the specification limits Violation of these assumptions can lead to big trouble in using the data in the Table.

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Computing probability of meeting specs given Cp

Q  LSL USL  Q uzu P USL u x u LSL ! P W W Cp ! USL  LSL USL  Q  Q  LSL USL  Q ! ! 6W 6W 3W 3C p ! USL  Q W

3 P  C p u z u 3C p

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Recommended minimum Cp values

Existing processes
Safety, strength, or critical parameter

Two-sided specifications 1.33 (66*) 1.50 (7) 1.50 (7) 1.67 (0.43)

One-sided specifications 1.25 (33) 1.45 (6) 1.45 (6) 1.60 (0.8)

New processes
Safety, strength, or critical parameter

*Fall out rate per million

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 Cp does not take process centering into account It is a measure of potential capability, not actual capability

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A Measure of Actual Capability

C pk ! min(C pu , C pl )
It is the one-sided PCR for the specification limit closer to the process average

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C pk ! min(C pu , C pl )

Process a b c d e

Process average 50 53 56 62 65

Cpu 2 1.5 1 0 -0.5

Cpl 2 2.5 3 4 4.5

Cpk 2 1.5 1 0 -0.5

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Normality and Process Capability Ratios

The assumption of normality is critical to the usual interpretation of these ratios For non-normal data, options are
1. Transform non-normal data to normal 2. Extend the usual definitions of PCRs to handle non-normal data 3. Modify the definitions of PCRs for general families of distributions Skip Sections 8-3.3 and 8-3.4
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Other Types of Process Capability Ratios

First generation Second generation Third generation Lots of research has been done to develop ratios that overcome some of the problems with the basic ones Not much evidence that these ratios are used to any significant extent in practice
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Confidence intervals are an important way to express the information in a PCR

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CI is wide because the sample size is small

Effect of sample size

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CI on Cpk
An approximate confidence interval:

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Example
n = 20, Cpk = 1.33, Z
/2

=1.96

0.88 Cpk 1.78 Very wide range, why ? The process could be incapable or capable. Demo
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Skip Test of Hypotheses about PCR in page 362 to beginning of Section 8-4

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Process capability analysis using control charts

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Center line ! x ! 264.06 UCL ! x  A2 R ! 264.06  0.577 * 77.3 ! 308.66 LCL ! 219.46 Center line ! R ! 77.3 UCL ! D4 R ! 2.115 * 77.3 ! 163.49 LCL ! D3 R ! 0
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 Q ! x ! 264.06
R 77.3 W! ! ! 33.23 d 2 2.326
Since LSL = 200

! Q  LSL ! 264.06  200 ! 0.64 C pl 3W 3 * 33.23

Are you happy with this performance ? It is in control but not capable.

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Process capability analysis using designed experiments

Skip Section 8-5

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Gauge and measurement system capability studies

The observed variability in a quality characteristic could partially come from variability in the measurement system Variability in the measurement system could come from: 1. Operator 2. Components 3. Operating conditions

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Capability study of the measuring system is used for:

1. Determining how much of the total observed variability is due to the gauge or instrument. 2. Isolating the components of variability in the measurement system 3. Assessing whether the instrument or gauge is capable (i.e. it is suitable for the intended application)

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A common model for measurement system study

Observed measurement (y) = true measurement (x) + measurement error ( ) x is N(, Wp) is N(0, Wgauge) x and are independent
2 2 2 W Total ! W P  W Gauge

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2 How can we estimate W Gauge ?

By repeated measurements of the same unit

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W Gauge

R ! d2

which d 2 ? W Gauge ! 0.887

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X-chart shows the power of the gauge to discriminate between different units

R is the magnitude of error. If R-chart is out of control, then either: gauge is faulty or operator does not know how to use it.
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Skip discussion on P/T ratio

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Estimating the Variance Components

W Gauge ! 0.887
2 2 2 W Total ! W P  W Gauge 2 Can we estimate W Total ?

Yes, from s 2 using all data. s 2 ! 10.05

2 2 2 W P ! W Total  W Gauge ! 9.26

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Estimating the gauge capability

W
2 Total

! W W
2 W Gauge

2 P

2 Gauge

VM !

2 Total

W VM ! W

2 Gauge 2 Total

! 0.0786

Do you prefer a small or large V M ?

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Accuracy and Precision

Accuracy refers to the ability to measure the true value correctly on average

Precision refers to variability in the measuring system

Which of these were we discussing so far ?

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How can we measure accuracy?

By using a standard that gives the true value Accuracy can be modified by making adjustment to the gauge or calibrations

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Gauge R&R Studies

Skip R & R studies Sections 8-7.2, 8-7.3, 8-7.4 and 8-7.5

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Setting specification limits on discrete components

Linear Combinations
A product is made of n parts. The quality characteristic of the product is a linear sum of those of the parts.

y ! a1 x1  a2 x2    an xn xi ~ N ( Qi , W ) Q y ! i !1 ai Qi , W ! i !1 a W
n 2 y n 2 i
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2 i

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Example
A linkage is made of 4 parts

2.4

W2
0.0004

4.5 0.0009 3.05 0.0004 2.5 0.0001

y = 12.45 Wy2 = 0.0018

The specifications are: 12.5 0.1

The process is not centered

Find the probability of being within specifications

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Solution without centering

SL = 12.5 0.1 Pr( 12.4 y 12.6 | y = 12.45, Wy2 = 0.0018) 12.6  12.45 12.4  12.45 ! *  * ! 0.881 0.0018 0.0018

After centering
SL = 12.5 0.1 Pr( 12.4 y 12.6 | y = 12.5, Wy2 = 0.0018) 12.6  12.5 12.4  12.5 ! *  * ! 0.982 0.0018 0.0018
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What should Wy be so that the probability 0.999?

12.6  12.5 12.4  12.5  * ! 0.999 * * * Wy Wy But Wy2 = 0.0018 A possible solution: Cut the variance of each part by W * ! 0.0304 y or (W ) ! 0.000924
* 2 y

0.1 * * ! 0.9995 W y z ! 3.2905

2.4

3W
32/100

New W2
0.0002 0.00045 0.0002 0.00005

4.5 34.5/100 3.05 32/100 2.5 30.5/100

12.4  12.5 12.6  12.5 * ! 0.99975  * 0.0009 0.0009
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HW for Chapter 8

5 9 10 15 18 21 23 25( in d use M ) 31 37

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