Bread Making

Systems of Bread-making
The processes of yeast-leavened breadmaking may be divided into

(a) Pre-fermentation (or sponge mixing): At this stage a portion of the ingredients is mixed with yeast and with or without flour to produce an inoculum. During this the yeast becomes adapted to the growth conditions of the dough and rapidly multiplies. Gluten development is not sought at this stage.

(b) Dough mixing: The balance of the ingredients is

mixed together with the inoculum to form the dough. This is the stage when maximum gluten development is sought. (c) Cutting and rounding: The dough formed above is cut into specific weights and rounded by machines. (d) First (intermediate) proofing: The dough is allowed to rest for about 15 minutes usually at the same temperature as it has been previous to this time i.e., at about 27C. This is done in equipment known as an overhead proofer.

(e) Molding: The dough is flattened to a sheet and then moulded into a spherical body and placed in a baking pan which will confer shape to the loaf. (f) Second proofing: This consists of holding the dough for about 1 hour at 35-43C and in an atmosphere of high humidity (89-95C)

(g) Baking: During baking the proofed dough is transferred, still in the final pan, to the oven where it is subjected to an average temperature of 215-225C for 17-23 minutes. Baking is the final of the various baking processes.

(h) Cooling, slicing, and wrapping: The bread is

depanned, cooled to 4-5C sliced (optional in some countries) and wrapped in waxed paper, or plastic bags.

Factors which effect the leavening action of yeasts

(i) The nature of the sugar available (ii) Osmotic pressure (iii) Effect of nitrogen and other nutrients (iv) Effect on fungal inhibitors (v) Yeast concentration

Factors which effect the leavening action of yeasts

(i) The nature of the sugar available: When no sugar is added to the dough such as in the traditional method of bread-making, the yeast utilizes the maltose in the flour. Such maltose is produced by the action of the amylases of the wheat.

 When glucose, fructose, or sucrose are added these are utilized in preference to maltose. (ii) Osmotic pressure: High osmotic pressures inhibit yeast action Salt at levels beyond about 2% (based on flour weight) is inhibitory on yeasts. In dough the amount used is 2.0-2.5% and this is inhibitory on yeasts. Salt is therefore added as late as possible in the dough formation process.

(iii) Effect of nitrogen and other nutrients: Short fermentations require no nutrients but for longer fermentation, the addition of minerals and a nitrogen source increases gas production. Ammonium normally added as yeast food is rapidly utilized. Flour also supplies amino acids and peptides and thiamine. Thiamine is required for the growth of yeasts.

(iv) Effect on fungal inhibitors (anti mycotic agents): Anti-mycotics added to bread are all inhibitory to yeast. (v) Yeast concentration: A balance exists between the sugar concentration, the length of the fermentation and the yeast concentration.

The Three Basic Systems of Bread-making All three are essentially similar and differ only in the presence or absence of a pre-fermentation. The formulation of the pre-ferment may consists of a broth or it may be a sponge (i.e., includes flour). All three basic types may be sponge i.e includes flour. All three basic types may also be batch or continuous. a) Sponge doughs, b) The liquid ferment system, c) The straight dough system

(i) Sponge doughs: most widely used worldwide In the sponge-dough system of baking a portion (60-70%) of the flour is mixed with water, yeast and yeast food in a slurry tank during the pre-fermentation to yield a spongy material due to bubbles caused by alcohol and CO2. If enzymes are used they may be added at this stage.

The sponge is allowed to rest at about 27C and a relative humidity of 75-80% for 3 to 5 hours. During this period the sponges rises five to six times because of the volatile products released by this yeast and usually collapses spontaneously. During the next stage the sponge is mixed with the other ingredients.

 The heat of the oven causes the metabolic products of the yeast CO2, alcohol, and water vapor to expand to the final size of the loaf. The protein becomes denatured beginning from about 70C; the denatured protein soon sets, and imposes fixed sizes to the air vesicles.

 The enzymes alpha and B amylases are active for a while as the temperature passes through their optimum temp, which are 55-65C and 65-70C respectively. At temperatures of about 10C beyond their optima, these two enzymes become denatured.

 At about 65-70C the yeasts are killed. The higher outside temperature leads to browning of the crust, a result of reactions between the reducing sugars and the free amino acids in the dough. The starch granules which have become hydrated are broken down only slightly by the amylolytic enzymes before they become denatured to dextrin and maltose by alpha amylase and B amylase

(ii) The liquid ferment system. In this system water, yeast, malt, sugar, salt and, sometimes, milk are mixed during the pre-fermentation at about 30C and left for about 6 hours. After that, flour and other ingredients are added and mixed to form a dough. The rest is as described above.

(iii) The straight dough system: In this system, all the components are mixed at the same time until a dough is formed. The dough is then allowed to ferment at about 28-30C for 2- 4 hours. During this period the risen dough is occasionally knocked down to cause it to collapse. Thereafter, it follows the same process as those already described. The straight dough is usually used for home bread making.

 Flavor development During baking the lower boiling point materials escape with the oven gases; and new compounds result from the chemical reactions taking place at the high temperature. The flavor compound found in bread are organic acids, esters, alcohols, aldehydes, ketones and other carbonyl compounds.

 Baking Bread is baked at a temperature of about 235C for 4560 minutes. As the baking progresses and temperature rises gas production rises and various events occur as below: a) At about 45C the undamaged starch granules begin to gelatinize and are attacked by alpha-amylase, yielding fermentable sugars;

b) Between 50 and 60C the yeast is killed;

c) At about 65C the beta-amylase is thermally inactivated; d) At about 75C the fungal amylase is inactivated; e) At about 87C the cereal alpha-amylase is inactivated;

f) Finally, the gluten is denatured and coagulates, stabilizing the shape and size of the loaf.