Ohmic Contact Rectifying Contact

This chapter concerns metal-semiconductor junctions. They are also called Schottky contacts to honor Walter Schottky, a pioneer in metal-semiconductor junctions. Introduction Metal-semiconductor junction is a type of junction in which a metal comes in close contact with a semiconductor material. Similar to a p-n junction, it has rectifying properties. Importance of metal-semiconductor junctions is due to: 1) Ohmic metal-semiconductor junctions (e.g. for metal interconnects contacting a Si device in an integrated circuit) 2) Rectifying metal-semiconductor junctions = Schottky diodes(e.g. for high-speed rectifier diodes)
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The structure is very simple

but also very interesting, important, and useful

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Many

of the properties of p-n junctions can be realized by forming an appropriate metalsemiconductor rectifying contact (Schottky contact)
Simple to fabricate Switching speed is much higher than that of p-n junction diodes
Metal-Semiconductor

junctions are also used as Ohmic-contact to carry current into and out of the semiconductor device

Vacuum level, E0 - corresponds to energy of free electrons. The difference between vacuum level and Fermilevel is called work function .

The metal Work function M is an invariant property of metal. It is the minimum energy required to free up electrons from metal. (3.66eV for Mg, 5.15eV for Ni etc.) The semiconductor work function s, depends on the doping.

s ( EC EF )

where = (E0 EC)|SURFACE is a fundamental property of the semiconductor called Electron affinity of Surfaces. (Example: = 4.0 eV, 4.03 eV and 4.07 eV for Ge, Si and GaAs respectively)

A few elements gain electrons to form an ions. Electron affinity is the energy change when an electron is added:
A(g) + e- ---> A-(g) E.A. = E

Assumptions - Ideal MS contacts M and S are in intimate contact, on atomic scale. No oxides or charges at the interface. No intermixing at the interface.

(a) and (c) An instant after contact formation

(b) and (d) under equilibrium conditions

M > S

M < S
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MS Junctions
Some facts
When negative charges are brought near the metal surface, positive (image charges) are induced in the metal.
When this image force is combined with an applied electric field, the effective work function is somewhat reduced.

This barrier lowering is called the Schottky effect.

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M S Junctions
Four different cases arise
M p SC

M n SC
M n SC M > S M < S M p SC M > S

M < S

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Soon after the contact formation, electrons will begin to flow from S to M near junction. Creates surface depletion layer, and hence a built-in electric field (similar to p-n junction). Under equilibrium, net flow of carriers will be zero, and Fermi-level will be constant. A barrier B forms for electron flow from M to S. B = M ... ideal MS (n-type) contact. B is called barrier height. Electrons in semiconductor will encounter an energy barrier equal to M S while flowing from S to M.

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MS Junctions
Metal - n SC ( m > SC )

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A potential barrier formed at the interface between metal and semiconductor. This barrier hinders the e- flow from semiconductor to metal, but not metal to semiconductor=> asymmetric resistance=> rectifying current In most cases, the rectifying contacts are made on n-type semiconductors.

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The periodic potential function is abrupt at the interface, forming the surface states which allow e- to drop to and resulting in a space charge region, space charge electric field, and potential barrier.

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MS Junctions
Metal - p SC ( m < SC )

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n-type
M > S M < S

p-type ohmic rectifying

rectifying ohmic

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Ohmic Contact
ohmic contact is a region on a semiconductor device that has been prepared so that the current-voltage (IV) curve of the device is linear and symmetric. If the IV characteristic is non-linear and asymmetric, the contact is not ohmic, but is a blocking or Schottky Contact. Typical ohmic contacts on semiconductors are sputtered or evaporated metal pads that are patterned using photolithography . Low-resistance, stable contacts are critical for the performance and reliability of integrated circuit and their preparation and characterization are major efforts in circuit fabrication.
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Theory

The Fermi level (or strictly speaking, electrochemical potential) of any two solids in contact must be equal in thermal equilibrium. The difference between the Fermi energy and the vacuum level is termed the work function. A contact metal and a semiconductor can have different work functions, denoted M and S respectively. If so, when the two materials are placed in contact, electrons will flow from the one with the lower work function until the Fermi levels equilibrate. As a result, the material with the lower work function will take on a slight positive charge while that with the higher work function will become slightly negative.
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Ohmic contacts are metal-tosemiconductor contacts, but in this case they are not rectifying contacts. Ohmic contact is a low-resistance junction providing conduction in both directions between the metal and the semiconductor. Ideally, the current through the ohmic contact is a linear function of applied voltage, and the applied voltage should be very small.
At n-type, m < s At p-type, m > s

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Preparation and characterization of ohmic contacts

The fabrication of ohmic contacts is a muchstudied part of materials engineering that nonetheless remains something of an art. The reproducible, reliable fabrication of contacts relies on extreme cleanliness of the semiconductor surface. Since a native oxide rapidly forms on the surface of silicon, for example, the performance of a contact can depend sensitively on the details of preparation.
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Rectifying contact

A rectifying junction can be made when certain metals are in contact with a semiconductor crystal. In the case of an n-type germanium crystal in contact with tungsten, current is allowed to flow when the tungsten is held at a positive potential, however, there is negligible current in the case where tungsten is held at a negative potential. The reverse is true in the case of p-type semiconductors. These junctions have some advantages over the standard p-n junction (diode) in that there is a smaller voltage drop, thus better emulating an ideal diode.
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Schottky diodes also allow for faster switching times compared to p-n junctions. The n-type junction (Schottky diode) can also be used in producing a hydrogen fuel cell. Water and hydrogen would combine on a palladium layer and generate a thermionic current sent into an n-type silicon carbide semiconductor with a potential greater than the Schottky barrier.

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The current in a pn-junction is determined by the diffusion of minority barriers while the current in a Schottky barrier diode is determined by thermionic emission of majority carriers over a potential barrier.

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The fundamental steps in contact fabrication

The fundamental steps in contact fabrication are semiconductor surface cleaning, contact metal deposition, patterning and annealing. Surface cleaning may be performed by sputteretching, chemical etching, reactive gas etching or ion milling. For example, the native oxide of silicon may be removed with an HF dip, while GaAs is more typically cleaned by a brominemethanol dip. After cleaning, metals are deposited via sputter deposition, evaporation or chemical vapor deposition.
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A metal on a lightly doped semiconductor can produce a rectifying contact known Schottky barrier. Rectifying current: the direction of voltage applied influences the height of barrier. Although ideal I-V relationship is the same, the current mechanism of Schottky diode is much different from that of the pn-junction diode. Metal-semiconductor junction can also form ohmic contacts.

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References: www.ecse.rpi.edu/~schubert/Course-ECSE.../MT-22-Ch14-1.ppt http://www.kocw.net/home/common/contents/document/lec/201 0/14/02/chapter6-7-11-15.pdf http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metal-semiconductor_junction http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schottky_contact www2.ee.ntu.edu.tw/.../Introduction%20to%20Schottky%20barrier.p

pt

Semiconductor physics and devices, chapter 9, Donald A. Neamen

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