Thermal Expansion, Heat Transfer and Radiation)

BMSAP
B.M.SHARMAACADEMYOFPHYSICS
1
Saturday, May 05, 2012 1 B.M.Sharma Academy of Physics
Consider a one dimensional solid of length l at
temperature T. If the temperature changes by
AT the change in length is directly proportional
to
(1)the original length l,
(2)the change in temperature, i.e,

l l t
Where o is coefficient of thermal expansion, a
proportionality constant.

At a particular temperature o

0
1 1
lim
T
d
T dT
A
A
o = =
A
2
A two- dimensional object, such as a thin metallic
plate, changes area when their temperature is
raised or lowered. For an isotropic material the
area expansion may be expressed in terms of the
linear expansion coefficient o.

Consider a rectangular area of dimensions l
1
and
l
2
. The area is

1 2
A l l =
2 1
1 2
dA dl dl
l l
dT dT dT
= +
1 2 1 2
( ) ( ) l l l l = o + o
1 2
2 l l = o
3
If a is constant over the temperature range of
under consideration, this equation can be
integrated.

1 2
2
f f
i i
A T
A T
dA l l dT = o
} }
(2 ) A A T A T A = o A = | A
Where | is coefficient of superficial expansion,
twice the coefficient of linear expansion.

4
Object expand along all dimensions as shown in
figure; their areas and volumes increase with
temperature as well as their lengths. If we cur a
hole in a metal plate, the remaining material will
expand exactly as it would if the plug were still in
place.

5
Consider a rectangular parallelpiped of slides l
1
,
l
2
, l
3

1 2 3
V l l l =
For a temperature change

3 2 1
1 2 1 3 2 3
dl dV dl dl
l l l l l l
dT dT dT dT
= + +
3
3
,
dl
l
dT
= o
2
2
,
dl
l
dT
= o
1
1
dl
l
dT
= o
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
( ) ( ) ( )
dV
l l l l l l l l l
dT
= o + o + o
1 2 3
(3 )l l l = o
6
If o is constant over the temperature range under
consideration.

1 2 3
3
f f
i i
V T
V T
dV l l l dT = o
} }
(3 ) V V T A = o A
( ) V V T A = A
Where is the coefficient of volume expansion,
which is three times the coefficient of linear
expansion.

7
Problem 1.
The figure shows a rectangular plate of dimension
(l b) from which two circular holes of radii R
1

and R
2
(R
1
> R
2
) has been cut. The distance
between the two holes is d (< R
2
).

(a) What happens to all these distances and
dimensions when the rod is heated up.

(b) If l, b, R
1
, R
2
and
d are the respective
lengths at a higher
temperature, then
determine the
relations between
the ratios

' ' '
1 2
1 2
' '
, , ,
l b R R d
and
l b R R d
| | | | | |
| | | |
| |
| | |
\ . \ .
\ . \ . \ .
R
1
l
d
b
R
2
8
Solution.
(a) All the dimensions increases as the
temperature is increased.

(a) All these ratios are equal.

' '
2 2
1 2
' ' '
1 tan
R R l b d
T cons t
l b R R d
= = = = = + oA =
9
Problem 6.
The difference between lengths of a certain brass
rod and of a steel rod is claimed to be constant at
all temperature. Is this possible ?
10
Solution.
If L
B
and L
S
are the lengths of brass and steel rods
respectively at a given temperature, then the
lengths of the rods when temperature is changed
by Au C
0
will become,
'
(1 )
B B B
L L = + o Au
'
(1 )
S S S
L L = + o Au
And
So that
' '
( ) ( )
S S B S B B S S
L L L L L L = + o o Au
So (L
B
L
S
) will be equal to (L
B
L
S
) at all
temperature if,
11
0
B B S S
L L o o = [ 0] as Au =
( / ) ( / )
B S S B
L L = o o
i.e, the difference in the lengths of the two rods
will be independent of temperature if the lengths
are in the inverse ratio of their coefficients of
linear expansion.
Problem 7.
There are two spheres of same radius and material
at same temperature but one being solid while the
other hollow. Which sphere will expand more if
(a) They are heated to the same temperature,
12
(b) Same heat is given to them ?
Solution.
(b) As thermal expansion of isotropic solids is
similar to true photographic enlargement,
expansion of a cavity is same as if it had been
a solid body of the same material, i.e.,
V V
Saturday, May 05, 2012 12
B.M.Sharma Academy of Physics
As here V, and Au are same for both solid
and hollow spheres treated (cavity); so the
expansion of both will be equal.
(b) If same heat is given to the two
spheres due to lesser mass, rise in
temperature of hollow sphere will be
more [as Au = Q/mc] and hence its
expansion will be more [as AV = V Au].
13
V
V
Problem 19.
A steel ring of 3.00 inches inside diameter at 20
0
C is
to be heated and slipped over a brass shaft
measuring 3.002 inches in diameter at 20
0
C.
To what temperature should the ring be heated?
Solution.
Let be the temperature to which the ring must be
heated.
Final diameter of ring should be 3.002 inches.
3.002 3[1 ( 20)] = + o u
3.002 3
20
3
u = +
o
75.6 C u =
14
Density of a substance is
m
V
=
1
1
(1 ) 1
t
V V
V V T T
= = =
+ A + A
1
(1 )
t
T

= + A
(1 )
t
T
15
1
t
m
and
V
=
The Buoyant force on a completely submerged
body of volume V in a liquid of density o is

B V g = o
With the increase in temperature,

' (1 )
s
V V T = + A
and

'
(1 )
L
T
o
o =
+ A
Hence new buoyant force is B = V o g

(1 )
(1 )
s
L
V T g
T
o
= + A
+ A
16
Problem 3.
A solid cube of constant density
s
floats in a
liquid of density , at 0
0
C.

(a) Determine the fraction f of the cube immersed
in the liquid.

(b) What happens to the factor f when the liquid
is heated to a temperature T.

(c) If is the coefficient of volume expansion of
the liquid, then determine the temperature at
which the solid will be completely
immersed.(>>3o)

(d) If f
1
and f
2
are the fractions of the volume of
the solid immersed in the liquid at
temperatures T
1
and T
2
(T
2
> T
1
) respectively,
then obtain an expression for calculating in
terms of f
1
, f
2
, T
1
and T
2
.

17
Solution.
(a) Let V be the total volume of the solid and AV be
the volume of solid immersed in the liquid.
Then,

s
l
V
f
V
A
= =
(b) Density of the liquid decreases as the

temperature is increased to T.

Now

'
1
l
l
T
=
+
'
' (1 ) (1 )
s s
l l
f T f T

= = + = +

The solid gets more immersed in the liquid.

V - V A
AV

s
l
18
(c) The solid gets completely immersed in the
liquid when f becomes unity.

1 f
T
f
Thus, for f = 1

(d)

1 1
(1 ); f f T = +
2 2
(1 ) f f T = +
On dividing, we get

1 1
2 2
1
1
f T
f T
+
=
+
1 2
2 1 1 2
f f
f T f T
19
Problem 4.
A solid cube with coefficient of linear expansion o
floats in a liquid whose coefficient of volume
expansion is . When both the solid and the liquid
are heated, discuss the conditions when

(a) The solid sinks more

(b) The solid does not sink or lift.

(c) The solid lifts up.

Solution.
We know that

s
l
V
f
V
A
= =
V - V A
AV

s
l
20
Thus

1 ' ' '
1
s
L
T B V g
B V g T
| | + A o
= =
|
o + A
\ .
The apparent weight of a body in a liquid is

app
W W B W Vg = = o
Apparent weight when temperature increases,

' ' '
app
W W V g = o
Generally

s L
s
' B B <
'
app app
and W W >
21
Thus with the rise in temperature buoyant
force decreases and apparent weight will
increase.

'
'
1 1
'
1 3 1 3
s s
l l
T T
f f
T T
| | + A + A
| | | |
= = =
| |
|
+ oA + oA
\ . \ .
\ .
On heating,

(a) The solid sinks more, i.e., f > f when > 3o

(b) The solid does not sink or lift when = 3o, and

(c) The solid lifts up, i.e, f < f when < 3o.

22
Consider a scale designed to give correct reading
at temperature T, When the temperature rises,
due to linear expansion of scale the scale reading
will be less than the actual reading . Consider a
unit reading on scale, it will become (1+ o AT) .
Thus

Actual reading=
Scale reading(1+ o AT)

Similarly when temperature is decreased, the
scale will contract and the actual reading will be
less than the scale reading.

23
Problem 7.
A surveyors 30m steel tape is correct at a
temperature of 20
0
C. The distance between two
points, as measured by this tape on a day when
the temperature is 35
0
C, is 26m.
What is the true distance between the point?
(o
steel
= 1.2 10
-5
/
0
C)
Solution.
Let temperature rise above the correct
temperature be u.
u = 35 - 20 = 15
0
C
Using the Relation :
Correct length = measured length (1 + o u)
24
true distance between the points
=26 (1 + 1.2 10
-5
15)
true distance = 26.00468m.
Problem 1.
A steel scale is to be prepared such that the
millimeter intervals are to be accurate with in 5
10
-4
mm at a certain temperature.
Determine the maximum permissible temperature
variation during the ruling of the millimeter marks
if o
steel
= 13.22 10
-6
/C
0
.
Solution.
We know that in case of linear
expansion AL = Lo Au
25
Here AL < 5 10
-4
mm; L = 1 mm and o =
13.22 10
-6
/C
0
.
6
6
( 5 10 )
1 13.22 10
L
L

A <
Au = =
o
0
37.83 C Au <
0
max
( ) 37.83 C Au =
Problem 2.
The brass scale of a barometer gives correct
reading at 0
0
C. Coefficient of linear expansion of
brass is 2.0 10
-5
/C
0
. The barometer reads 75
cm at 27
0
C.
What is the atmospheric pressure at 27
0
C ?
26
Solution.
We know that in case of scale reading.
True value = scale reading [1 + o Au]
Here SR = 75 cm; o = 2 10
-5
/C
0

And Au = (u u) = 27 - 0 = 27 C
0

So True value h = 75 (1 + 2 10
-5
27) = 75.04
cm
Note :
The pressure at 0
0
C will be given by
H
0
d
0
= hd = P, i.e, h
0
= h(d/d
0
)
But as d = d
0
/(1 +
Hg
Au),
27
0
(1 )
Hg
h
h =
+ Au
With h = h
s
( 1 + o Au) = 75.04 cm
When a liquid is heated in a vessel, both the liquid
and the vessel expand. The change in volume of
liquid relative to the vessel is called its apparent
expansion. The apparent change in volume of the
liquid is given by

( 3 )
app
V V T A = o A
Where V is the volume of the liquid

is the coefficient of volume expansion of the
liquid.

o is the coefficient of linear expansion of the
vessel

28
(i) If < 3o, level of liquid in the vessel rises on
heating.

(ii) If > 3o, level of liquid in the vessel falls on
heating.

(ii) If = 3o, level of liquid in the container will
remain stationary with respect to the vessel.

Problem 4.
A one litre glass flask contains some mercury. It is
found that at different temperatures the volume of
air inside the flask remains the same.
What is the volume of mercury in this flask if
coefficient of linear expansion of glass is 9 10
-
6
/C
0
while volume expansion of mercury is 1.8
10
-4
/C
0
?
30
Solution.
If V is the volume of flask, V
L
of mercury and V
A
of
air in it,
L A
V V V = +
Now as with change in temperature volume of air
remains constant, the expansion of mercury will be
equal to that of the whole flask i.e.,
L
V V A = A
31
G L L
V V Au = Au
[ ] as V V A = Au
Here
1 1000 V litre cc = =
and
6 0
3 27 10 /
G G
C
= o =
So V
L
= (1000 27 10
-6
/1.8 10
-4
)
=150 cc
Problem 11.
A glass flask whose volume is exactly 1000 cm
3
at
0
0
C is filled level full of mercury at this
temperature. When the flask and mercury are
heated to 100
0
C, 15.2 cm
3
of mercury overflow.
The coefficient of cubical expansion of Hg is 1.82
10
-4
/
0
C. Compute the coefficient of linear
expansion of glass.
32
15.2
1000
g l
=
u
0.000182 0.000152 =
0 5 0 1
0.00003/ 3 10 ( )
g
C C

= =
5 0
1 10 /
3
g
C
o = =
33
Solution.
As 15.2 cm
3
of Hg overflow at 100
0
C,
(final volume of Hg) - (final volume of glass flask)
= 15.2 cm
3
.
1000(1 +
l
u) - 1000(1 +
g
u) = 15.2
where u = rise in temperature = 100 - 0 = 100
0
C
Problem 12.
A 250 cm
3
glass bottle is completely filled with
water at 50
0
C. The bottle and water are heated to
60
0
C. How much water runs over if :
(a) the expansion of the bottle is neglected;
(b) the expansion of the bottle is included? Given
the coefficient of areal expansion of glass | =
1.2 10
-5
/
0
C and
water
= 60 10
-5
/
0
C.
Solution.
Water overflow = (final volume of water) - (final
volume of bottle)
(a) If the expansion of bottle is neglected :
water overflow
250(1 ) 250
l
= + u
34
5
250 60 10 10
=
Water overflow =1.5 cm
3
.
(b) If the bottle (glass) expands :
Water overflow= (final volume of water) - (final
volume of glass)
Water overflow =250 (1 +
l
u) - 250 (1 +
g
u)
Water overflow =250 (
l

g
)u
where
g
= 3/2| = 1.8 10
5
/
0
C
Water overflow =250 (58.2 10
-5
) (60 -
50)
water overflow = 1.455 cm
3
.
35
Fractional charge in time
period,

1 1
2 2
dT dl dg
T l g
=
If acceleration due to gravity is
uniform,

0
dg
g
=
1
2
dT dl
T l
=
dl
l
== oAu
Time period of a pendulum is given
by

2
l
T
g
= t
36
Thus we have

1 1
2 2
dT dl
T l
= = oAu
If temperature is increased, the length of
pendulum will increase, consequently
time period will increase. The pendulum
clock will run slow.
The time lost in time t, is

Similarly time gained when temperature is
decreased is also given by

37
1
2
t t A = o Au
1
2
t t A = o Au
Problem 3.
A pendulum clock with a pendulum made of Invar
(o = 0.7 10
-6
/C
0
) has a period of 0.5 s and is
accurate at 25
0
C. If the clock is used in a country
where the temperature averages 35
0
C, what
correction is necessary at the end of a month (30
days) to the time given by the clock ?
38
Solution.
As explained in earlier, in time interval t the clock
will become slow (or will lose time) by
1
2
t t A = o Au
7
1
(7 10 ) (30 86400) (35 25) 9.1
2
t s
A = =
Problem 8.
A clock with a brass pendulum shaft keeps correct
time at a certain temperature.
(a) How closely must the temperature be
controlled if the clock is not to gain or lose
more than 1 sec. a day? Does the answer
depend on the period of the pendulum?
(b) Will an increase of temperature cause the
clock to gain or lose?
(o
bras
= 2 10
-5
/
0
C)
Solution.
(a) No. of seconds lost or gained
per day
1
86400
2
= oAu
39
where; u = rise or drop in temperature
o = coeff. of linear expansion of shaft.
We want that
5
2
| |
2 10 86400
u s

1
86400 1
2
o u <
| | 1.1574 C u <
Hence temperature should not increase or
decrease by more than 1.1574
0
C
(b) An increase in temperature makes the
pendulum slow and hence clock loses
time.
40
Problem 18.
A pendulum clock loses 12 sec. a day if the
temperature is 40
0
C and goes fast by 4 sec. a day
if the temperature is 20
0
C.
Find the temperature at which the clock will show
correct time and the coefficient of linear
expansion of the metal of the pendulum shaft.
Solution.
Let T be the temperature at which the clock is
correct.
time lost per day = ()o (rise in temperature)
86400
12 =(1/2) o (40 - T) 86400 (i)
41
4 = ()o (T - 20) 86400
on adding (1) and (2), we get
64 = 86400o (40 - 20)
o = 1.85 10
-5
/
0
C.
on dividing (1) and (2), we get
12 (T - 20) = 4(40 - T)
T = 25
0
C
clock shows correct time at 25
0
C.
(ii)
42
time gained per day = ()o (drop in temperature)
86400
When a metal rod is heated or cooled, it expands
or contracts. If it is prevented from the expansion
or contraction, then stresses are produced in it
corresponding to the thermal strain.

Thermal strain :

t
L
T
L
A
c = = oA
43
Thermal stress :

t
Y Y T o = c = oA
Force :

F A YA T = o = oA
The following points must be noted about
this force.

(i) When the rod is heated, the force is
compressive; when the rod is cooled, the force is
tensile.

44
(ii) The magnitude of the force produced is
independent of the length of the rod.

Problem 5.
The metal rods of same length l and area of cross-
section A are fixed end to end between two rigid
supports, as shown in figure. The materials of the
rods have Youngs Moduli Y
1
and Y
2
and the
coefficients of linear expansion o
1
and o
2
. When the
system is heated up,

(a) How many types of strains are produced in each
rod ?

(a) Determine the condition when the junction
between the rods does not shift.

o
1
o
2
Y
1
Y
2
l l
45
Solution.
(a) When the system is heated up both the rods try
to expand, thus thermal strain is produced in
each rod.

Since each rod is prevented from expansion,
therefore, they are under compression. Thus,
each rod also experiences a mechanical strain.

The net change in length of each rod is

1 1
1
Fl
l T
AY
c = o A
And

2 2
2
Fl
l T
AY
c = o A
46
(b) The junction between the rods will not change if
the net strain in each rod is zero.

1
1
0
Fl
l T
AY
o A =
1 2
0 c = c =
2
2
Fl
l T
AY
= o A
or

1 1 2 2
tan
F
Y Y cons t
A T
o = o = =
A
Hence, the junction does not shift if
o
1
Y
1
= o
2
Y
2

47
BMSAP
B.M.SHARMAACADEMYOFPHYSICS
48
Methods of Heat Transfer
Need to know the rate at which energy is
transferred
Need to know the mechanisms responsible for the
transfer
Methods include
Conduction
Convection
Radiation
49
Conduction
The molecules vibrate about their equilibrium
positions
Particles near the flame vibrate with larger
amplitudes
These collide with adjacent molecules and transfer
some energy
Eventually, the energy travels entirely through the
rod
Conduction can occur only if there is a
difference in temperature between two parts of
the conducting medium
51
HEAT CONDUCTION
Consider a solid slab of cross- sectional area A
and thickness Ax, whose faces are kept at
different temperature T
1
and T
2
, respectively as
shown in figure.
52
Ax
T
1 2
T = T A
T
2
T
1
AH
At
AH
At
53
Experiments show that the rate of heat flow
AH/At is proportional to -----------------
cross-sectional area A and

the temperature gradient
T
x
A
A
Ax
T
1 2
T = T A
T
2
T
1
AH
At
AH
At
54
That is
H T
A
t x
A A
| |
|
A A
\ .
H T
KA
t x
A A
| |
=
|
A A
\ .
Where k is the
proportionality
constant called the
thermal conductivity.
Good conductors have high k values and
good insulators have low k values
55
If a slab of infinitesimal thickness dx,
across which there is a temperature
difference dT, we can write the
fundamental law of heat conduction as :
dH dT
KA
dt dx
| |
=
|
\ .
56
Note that we choose the direction of heat flow to
be the direction in which x increases;
since heat flows in the direction of decreasing T,
therefore, we introduce a minus sign in the
equation so as to get a positive value of
dH
dt
dT
dx
When
is negative
dH dT
Q KA
dt dx
| |
= =
|
\ .
57
Electrical Analogy for Thermal
condition
It is an important fact to appreciate that there
exists an exact similarity between thermal and
electrical conductivities of a conductor.
Electrical Conduction
(i) Electric charge flows from higher potential to
lower potential.
(ii) The rate of flow of charge is called the
electric current, i.e.
dq
I
dt
=
(iii) The relation between the electric
current and the potential difference is
given by Ohms law, that is
1 2
V V
I
R
=
where R is the electric resistance of the
conductor.
(iv) The electrical resistance is defined as
l l
R
A A
= =
o
58
where is the resistivity of the conductor
and o is the electrical conductivity of the
conductor. 1
o =
l
V
2
V
1
dq
dt
dq
dt
A
1 2
1 2
( )
dq V V A
I V V
dt R l
o
= = =
59
Thermal Conduction
(i) heat flows from higher temperature to lower
temperature.
60
(ii) The rate of flow of heat may be called as
heat current
(iii) Similarly, the heat current may be related
with the temperature difference as :
dH
I
dt
=
1 2
T
T T
I
R
=
where R
T
is the thermal resistance of the
conductor.
61
(iv) The thermal resistance may be defined as
T
l
R
kA
=
where k is the thermal conductivity of the
conductor.
2 1
1 2
( )
T
dH KA T T
T T
dt l R
= =
T
2
T
1
dH
dt
dH
dt
A
62
Important
Using the electrical analogy, a problem of heat
conduction may be transformed into a problem
of electrical conduction and can be solved by
using the elementary concepts of electric
circuits.
Good conductors of heat are also the good
conductors of electricity.
Problem .
Explain why
63
(a) The glass bulb of a mercury thermometer is
long (cylindrical and not spherical) and thin;
(a) The rate of flow of heat through conduction
is given by
Solution.
(b) Clinical thermometer cannot be sterilized by
boiling
( )
H L
dQ
KA
dt d
u u
=
64
(b) Clinical thermometer is usually calibrated to
read from 95
0
F to 110
0
F while the boiling
point of water is 212
0
F. So on sterilization
by heating due to thermal expansion of
mercury in the capillary, the capillary of the
thermometer will burst.
In order that a mercury thermometer inspite of
having low thermal conductivity (K) of glass may
quickly conduct heat from body to mercury, the
glas bulb containing mercury is made long ( so
that its area is increased) and thin (so that d is
decreased).
Problem 10.
Two solid copper spheres of radii r
1
= 15 cm and
r
2
= 20 cm are both at a temperature of 60
0
C. If
the temperature of surrounding is 50
0
C, then
find:
(a) the ratio of the heat loss per second from
their surfaces initially
(b) the ratio of rates of cooling initially.
Solution.
(a) Ratio of heat loss
( )
( )
1 1
2
2
/
/
dQ dt
H
H dQ dt
=
( )
( )
1 1
2 2
60 50
60 50
KA H
H KA

=
65
by using Newtons Law of cooling
2
2
1 1 1
2
2 2 2
15 9
20 16
H A r
H A r
| |
= = = =
|
\ .
2
1 1
2 2
H r
H r
| |
=
|
\ .
(b) The ratio of initial rates of cooling
( )
( )
1
2
/
/
d dt
d dt
u
=
u
We have
( )
( )
2
1
1 1
2 2
2
/
/
Ms d dt
r
M s d dt r
u | |
=
|
u
\ .
66
As the spheres have the same densities, the ratio
of their masses is equal to the ratio of their
volumes.
( )
( )
2
1 2 1
2 1
2
/
/
d dt
r M
d dt r M
u | |
=
|
u
\ .
2 3
1 2
2 1
r r
r r
| | | |
=
| |
\ . \ .
2
1
20 4
15 3
r
r
= = =
67
Problem 4.
Two plates each of area A, thickness L
1
and L
2

and thermal conductivities K
1
and K
2
respectively
are joined to form a single plate of thickness
(L
1
+ L
2
). If the temperature of the free surfaces
are T
1
and T
2
, calculate
(a) rate of flow of heat
(b) temperature of interface and
(c) equivalent thermal conductivity.
68
L
as R
KA
(
=
(

1 2
1 2
1 2
S
L L
R R R
AK AK
= + = +
1 2
1 2
( ) dQ T T
H
dt R R R
Au
= = =
+
1 2
1 2
1 2
( ) A T T
L L
K K
=
(
+
(

69
L
1
K
1
T
K
2
L
2
T
2
T
1
Solution.
(a) If the thermal resistances of the two plates
are R
1
and R
2
respectively, then as the plates
are in series,
(b) IF T is the common temperature of interface,
then, as in series the rate of flow of heat
remains same, i.e., H = H (=H
2
), so
1 2 1
1 2 1
,
T T T T
R R R

=
+
1 2 1 1
1 2
( )
TR TR
T
R R
+
=
+
2 1
1 2
2 1
1 2
1 2
L L
T T
K K
T
L L
K K
(
+
(

=
(
+
(

L
as R
KA
(
=
(

L
1
K
1
T
K
2
L
2
T
2
T
1
70
2 1
1 2
2 1
1 2
1 2
L L
T T
K K
T
L L
K K
(
+
(

=
(
+
(

L
as R
KA
(
=
(

L
1
K
1
T
K
2
L
2
T
2
T
1
71
(c) If K is the equivalent conductivity of
composite slab, i.e., slab of thickness L
1
+ L
2

and cross- sectional area A, then as in series
1 2 S
R R R = +
1 2
1 2
( )
eq
L L
R R
AK
+
= +
1 2 1 2
1 2 1 2
1 2
( )
eq
L L L L
K
A R R L L
K K
+ +
= =
+ (
+
(

L
as R
KA
(
=
(

72
Note: If L
1
= L
2
= L,
1 2
1 2
2K K
K HM
K K
= =
+
Problem 2.
Two rods A and B are of equal length. Each rod
has its end at temperatures T
1
and T
2
. What is
the condition that will ensure equal rates of flow
of heat through the rods A and B ?
Solution.
We know that in case of heat conduction (dQ/dt)
= KA(u
1
u
2
)/L, so for equal rates of flow,
1 2
,
dQ dQ
dt dt
=
1 2 1 2
( ) ( )
A A B B
A B
K A K A
L L
u u u u
=
( / ) ( / )
A B B A
A A K K =
[as L
A
= L
B
= L given]
i.e., the ratio of cross-sectional area of the two
rods must be in the inverse ratio of their thermal
conductivities.
73
Problem 3.
Cylinder of radius R made of a material of
thermal conductivity K
1
is surrounded by a
cylindrical shell of inner radius R and outer
radius 2R made of a material of thermal
conductivity K
2
. The two ends of the combined
system are maintained at two different
temperatures.
There is no loss of heat across the cylindrical
surface and the system is in steady state. What
is the effective thermal conductivity of the
system ?
74
1 2
dQ dQ dQ
dt dt dt
= +
Now if the equivalent conductivity is K,
2 2
1 1 2 2 1 2
( ) 3 ( ) K R K R
L L
t u u t u u
= +
2
1 2
4 ( ) dQ R
K
dt L
t u u
=
[ as A = t(2R)
2
]
So from equations (i) and (ii) we have ,
1 2
4 3 K K K = +
1 2
. , ( 3 ) / 4 i e K K K = +
75
In this situation a rod of length L and area of
cross-section tR
2
and another of same length L
and cross-section t [(2R)
2
R
2
] = 3tR
2
will
conduct heat simultaneously; so total heat
flowing per sec will be
Solution.
Alternative answer
L
with R
KA
=
This problem is equivalent to two thermal
resistances [of equal length L and cross-sections
tR
2
and t[(2R)
2
R
2
] = 3tR
2
in parallel so that ,
1 2
1 1 1
eq
R R R
= +
Now if K is equivalent conductivity of rod of
length L and radius 2R, i.e., cross-section 4tR
2
.
2 2 2
1 2
4 3 K R K R K R
L L L
t t t
= +
1 2
3
4
K K
K
+
=
76
Problem 4.
Four square pieces of insulation, of two different
materials all with same thickness and area A, are
available to cover an opening of area 2A. This
can be done in either of the two ways shown in
fig. Which arrangement (A) or (B) would ensure
lesser heat flow if K
1
# K
2
?
K
1
K
2
K
1
K
2
K
1
K
2
K
1
(a) (b)
K
2
77
Solution.
If the thermal resistance of piece of conductivity
K
1
while that of K
2
is R
2
, for case (A), 2R
1
and
2R
2
will be in parallel.
So,
1 2
1 1 1
2 2
A
R R R
= +
1 2
1 2
2
( )
A
RR
R HM
R R
= =
+
So,
78
K
1
K
2
K
1
K
2
K
1
K
2
K
1
(a) (b)
K
2
i.e.,
1 2
2
B
R R
R AM
+
= =
Now as arithmetic mean is greater than
harmonic mean, if R
1
R*
2
, thermal resistance
in case (B) is higher than in case (A). So case
(B) would ensure lesser heat flow as
compared to (A).
79
While for case (B) (R
1
+ R
2
) and (R
1
+ R
2
) will be
parallel.
1 2 1 2
1 1 1
( ) ( )
B
R R R R R
= +
+ +
Problem .
Two identical rectangular rods of metal are
welded end to end as shown in figure (A) and 10
J of heat flows through the rods in 2 min. How
long would it take for 30 J of heat to flow
through the rods if they are welded as shown in
figure (B).
80
100 C
0
0 C
0
(A)
100 C
0
0 C
0
(B)
81
If the thermal resistance of each rod is R, in case
(A) the rods are in series; so
2
S
R R R R = + =
So rate of flow of heat in steady state will be
,
S
dQ
dt R
Au
=
10 (100 0)
2 2R
=
Solution.
,
P
dQ
dt R
Au
=
30 (100 0)
( / 2) t R

=
Substituting the value of R (= 10) from equation
(i) and (ii), we get t = 1.5 minute.
82
In case (B) the rods are in parallel; so
1 1 1
P
R R R
= +
. ,
2
P
R
i e R =
So rate of flow of heat in this situation will be
Problem 5.
A body which has a surface area 5.00 cm
2
and a
temperature of 727
0
C radiates 300 joule of
energy each minute.
What is its emissivity ? (Stefans Boltzmann
constt. o = 5.67 10
-8
W/m
2
K
4
)
83
Saturday, May 05, 2012 83
B.M.Sharma Academy of Physics
So
8 4 3 4
5
5.67 10 (5 10 ) (10 )
e

=

1
0.18
5.67
= =
84
Solution.
According to Stefans Boltzmann law, energy
radiated per sec by a body
4
P e AT = o
Here
273 727 1000 T K = + =
(300/ 60) / 5 / P J s J s = =
Problem 9.
The rate at which the radiant energy reaches the
surface of earth from the sun is about 1.4
kW/m
2
. The distance from earth to the sun is
about 1.5 10
11
m, and the radius of sun is about
0.7 10
9
m.
(a) What is the rate of radiation of energy, per
unit area, from the suns surface?
(b) If the sun radiates as an ideal blackbody,
what is the temperature of its surface?
85
Solution.
Let D = distance from SUN to the earth
= 1.5 10
11
m.
Let R = radius of SUN - 0.7 10
9
m.
Let power of SUN = P = energy radiated from the
surface of SUN per second.
86
Sun
b
i
g

s
p
h
e
r
e
o
f

r
a
d
i
u
s

D
D
earth
(a) Hence in every one second, P joules of energy
are radiated from the surface of SUN and this
energy passes through a big sphere of radius
D centred at SUN.
Hence at the circumference of this big sphere
(i.e., near the surface of the earth), the energy
crossing through a unit area per sec.
2
area of big sphere 4 D
P P
= =
t
3 2
2
1.4 10
4 D
P
Wim
=
t
11 2 3
4 (1.5 10 ) 1.4 10 P W = t
26
3.96 10 P W =
87
Sun
b
i
g

s
p
h
e
r
e
o
f

r
a
d
i
u
s

D
D
earth
Rate of radiation of
energy per sec. per unit
area of SUNs surface is
given by :
2
area of big sphere 4
P P
R
=
t
7 2
6.43 10 Wim
=
88
Sun
b
i
g

s
p
h
e
r
e
o
f

r
a
d
i
u
s

D
D
earth
(b) If SUN is an ideal black body, e = 1.
4
E T = o
1/ 4
E
T
| |
=
|
o
\ .
1/ 4
7
8
6.43 10
5803
5.67 10
K
| |
= =
|
\ .
89
Problem 8.
The emissivity of tungsten is approximately 0.35.
A tungsten sphere 1 cm in radius is suspended
within a large evacuated enclosure whose walls
are at 300K.
What power input is required to maintain the
sphere at a temperature of 3000K if heat
conduction along the supports is neglected? o =
5.67 10
-8
S.I. Units.
90
To maintain constant temperature, Power input
required = net heat loss per sec from the surface
4 4
0
( )
input
P e A T T = o
8 2 4 4
0.35 5.67 10 4 (0.01) (3000 300 )
input
P = t
2019.8 watts =
91
Solution.
Net heat lost by sphere per second
H
net
= eoA (T
4
- T
0
4
)
where T = temperature of sphere = 3000 K
T
0
= temperature of surrounding = 300K
A = 4 t r
2
= 4t (0.01)
2
Problem .
A double pane window used for insulating a room
thermally from outside, consists of two glass
sheets each of area 1 m
2
and thickness 0.01 m
separated by a 0.05 m thick stagnant air space. In
the steady state, the room- glass interface and the
glass-outdoor interface are at constant
temperature of 27
0
C and 0
0
C respectively.
Calculate the rate of heat flow through the
window pane. Also find the temperature of other
interfaces. Given, thermal conductivities of glass
and air as 0.8 and 0.08 Wm
-1
K
-1
respectively.
92
Air
K = .08
.05m
.01 .01
G
K=.8
G
K=.8
Room
27 C
0
0 C
0
Out
side
u
1 Saturday, May 05, 2012 92 B.M.Sharma Academy of Physics
with
L
R
KA
=
1 0.01 0.05
2
0.80 0.08
eq
L
R
KA A
(
= = +
(

Air
K = .08
.05m
.01 .01
G
K=.8
G
K=.8
Room
27 C
0
0 C
0
Out
side
u
1
93
Solution.
In case of thermal conduction as
dQ
KA
dt L R
Au Au
= =
And as here
2
1 , A m =
1 5 26
40 8 40
eq
R = + =
And hence
(27 0) 40
41.5
26
dQ
W
dt R
Au
= = =
94
Air
K = .08
.05m
.01 .01
G
K=.8
G
K=.8
Room
27 C
0
0 C
0
Out
side
u
1
Now if u
1
and u
2
are the temperatures of air in
contact with glass in the room and outside as
shown in figure.
1
(27 )
41.5 0.80 1
0.01
u
=
2
( 0)
41.5 0.80 1
0.01
u
=
Solving these for u
1
and u
2
we get
1
26.48 C u =
2
0.52 C u = and
95
Problem 14.
A uniform copper bar 100 cm long is insulated on
sides, and has its ends exposed to the ice and
steam respectively. If there is a layer of water
0.1mm thick at each end, calculate the
temperature gradient in the bar. K
Cu
= 1.04 and
K
water
= 0.0014 in C.G.S. units.
Solution.
Let u
1
and u
2
be the temperatures at the ends of
the copper bar.
Heat transfer per sec. through the system is
(100 0)
0.01 100 0.01
w cu w
dH A
dt
K K K
=
| |
+ +
|
\ .
96
Heat transfer per sec. through copper bar
( )
1 2
100
Cu
K A u u
As the rods are in series, heat transfer per
second must be same through each part.
( ) ( )
1 2
100 0
100 0.01 100 0.01
Cu
w Cu w
K A A
K K K
u u
=
| |
+ +
|
\ .
Putting K
cu
= 1.04 and K
w
= 0.0014 we get :
Temperature gradient
( )
0 1 1 2
0.87
100
C cm
u u
=
97
Problem 15.
A closed cubical box made of perfectly insulating
material has walls of thickness 8 cm and the only
way for the heat to enter or leave the box is
through the solid, cylindrical, metallic plugs each
of cross-sectional area 12 cm
2
and length 8 cm
fixed in the opposite walls of the box as shown in
the figure.
The outer surface A is kept at 100
0
C while the
outer surface B of other plug is kept at 4
0
C. K of
the material of the plugs is 0.5 cal/s/C/cm. A
source of energy generating 36 cal/s is enclosed
inside the box.
Find the equilibrium
temperature of the
inner surface of the
box assuming that it
is same at all points
on the inner surface..
98
A
100 C
0
4 C
0
B
Source
Solution.
Let u be the temperature of inner surface of box.
Heat transfer per sec. through A + Heat
produced by source per sec. = Heat transfer
per sec. through B
36 /
A B
dH dH
cal s
dt dt
| | | |
+ =
| |
\ . \ .
( ) ( ) 100 4
36
KA KA
d d
u u
+ =
99
A
100 C
0
4 C
0
B
Source
( 4 100 ) 36 KA d u + u =
Now d = 8 cm, A = 12 cm
2
, K = 0.5 cal/s/
0
C/cm.
36 8
2 104
12 0.5
u =
0
76 C =
100
Radiation
Radiation does not require
physical contact
All objects radiate energy
continuously in the form of
electromagnetic waves due to
thermal vibrations of the
molecules

102
HEAT RADIATION
(i) All bodies emit radiation, the
intensity and wavelength distribution
of which depend on the nature and
temperature of its surface.
(ii) Heat radiations are electromagnetic
in nature with wavelength longer
than that of the visible light.
In the electromagnetic spectrum, The
region of heat radiations extends from
about 750 nm to 410
5
nm.
Properties of heat radiations
The properties of heat radiations are
similar to that of light waves.
103
* Radiant heat travels with the speed
of light.
* It travels along a straight line .
* It can be reflected as well as
refracted like light rays.
* Like light intensity, the intensity of
heat radiations decreases in inverse
square proportion with distance.
It also show the phenomena of
interferance, differciation or
polarization.
104
Basic terms
Perfectly black body
is a body, which absorbs all the radiations
incident on it .
Blackbody
Blackbody is an idealized
system that absorbs
incident radiation of all
wavelengths
If it is heated to a certain
temperature, it starts
radiate electromagnetic
waves of all wavelengths
Cavity is a good real-
life approximation to a
blackbody

106
Basic terms
Absorptive power (a)
of a surface is defined as the ratio of the radiant
energy absorbed to the total energy incident on
it.
a 1 (for any body)
a = 1 (For perfectly black body)
Spectral absorptive power (a
)
is defined as the absorptive power of the surface
in the wavelength range to + d.
By defination,
0
a a d
=
}
Emissivity (e)
of a surface is a measure of its relative
remmitance with respect to a perfectly black
body.
For example ,If the emmissity of a surface is
0.6,It means that it will radiate 60% of the
energy radiated by a perfectly black body under
similar conditions .
Spectral emmissive power (e
)
is the emissive power of the body between the
range to + d.
By defination,
0
e e d
=
Stefans Law
The radiant energy emitted by a body per unit
area per second is directly proportional to the
fourth power of its absolute temperature T.
That is, I o T
4
where e is the emissivity of the surface and
o is the Stefans constant. Its numerical value is
5.68 10
8
Wm
-2
K
4
.
If A is the surface area of the body, then the rate
of heat emitted by the body is
dH
E e AT
dt
= = o
4
108
I = eoT
4
Application of Stefans Law
If the temperature of the body is more than the
temperature T
0
of the surrounding, then the
body loses heat at a faster rate than it absorbs
the same from the surroundings. The net rate of
loss of heat is given by
dH
E e A T T
dt
= = o
4 4
0
( )
If m be the mass of body and c be its specific
heat, then we may write
dH dT
dt dt
| |

|
\ .
109
dH dT
mc
dt dt
| |
=
|
\ .
110
When the temperature difference between the
body and its surrounding is not very large, i.e.
T T T T T T = A = + A
0 0
dT
T
dt
A
dH
We have E e A T T
dt
= = o
4 4
0
( )
dH
E e A T T T
dt
= = o + A
4 4
0 0
[( ) )]
dH T
E e AT
dt T
A
= = o +
4 4
0
0
[(1 ) 1)]
T T
But
T T
A A
+ = +
4
0 0
(1 ) 1 4
dH T
E e AT
dt T
A
= = o +
4
0
0
[(1 4 ) 1)]
dH T
E e AT
dt T
A
= = o
4
0
0
[4 ]
dH
E e AT T
dt
= = o A
3
0
4
dH
E T
dt
= A
Thus, when the temperature difference
between the body and its surrounding is
not very large,
then the rate of cooling is directly
proportional to the temperature
difference.
This is known as Newtons Law of
Cooling.
dT
T
dt
A
Problem 6.
A body cools in 7 minute from 60
0
C to 40
0
C. What
will be the temperature after the next 7 minute ?
The temperature of surroundings is 10
0
C.
Solution.
According to Newtons law of cooling,
1 2 1 2
0
2
K
t
u u u + u
( ( | |
= u
|
( (
\ .
60 40 60 40
10
7 2
K
+
( ( | |
=
|
( (
\ .
1
14
K =
So that
(i)
112
Now if after cooling from 40
0
C to 7 minute the
temperature of the body becomes u, according to
Newtons law of cooling,
40 40
10
7 2
K
u + u
( ( | |
=
|
( (
\ .
Which in the light of equation (i), i.e., K = (1/14)
gives
40 1 20
7 14 2
u + u
( ( | |
=
|
( (
\ .
28 C
160 4 20 u = + u
113
Alternative solution : According to Newtons law of
cooling,
0
( )
d
K
dt
u
= u u
or
2
1
0
0
1
( )
t
d
dt
K
u
u
u
=
u u
} }
or
1 0
2 0
1
log
e
t
K
( u u
=
(
u u

So here
1 60 10
7 log
40 10
e
K

(
=
(

and also
1 40 10
7 log
10
e
K

(
=
(
u

114
5 30
3 ( 10)
=
u
50 30
log log
30 10
( (
=
( (
u

5u 50 = 90 or u = 28
0
C
Problem 7.
A liquid takes 5 minute to cool from 80
0
C to 50
0
C.
How much time will it take to cool from 60
0
C to
30
0
C ? The temperature of the surrounding is 20
0
C.
Solution.
According to Newtons law of cooling ;
1 2 1 2
0
2
K
t
u u u + u
( | | | |
= u
| |
(
\ . \ .
80 50 80 50
20
5 2
K
+
( | | | |
=
| |
(
\ . \ .
So that
and
60 30 60 30
20
2
K
t
+
( | | | |
=
| |
(
\ . \ .
Solving these for t, we get t = 9 minute.
115
Problem 12.
A body cools down from 60
0
C to 55
0
C in 30
seconds. Using Newtons Law of cooling, calculate
the time taken by same body to cool down from
55
0
C to 50
0
C.
Assume that the temperature of surrounding is
45
0
C.
Solution.
Assume that a body cools down from temperature
u
i
to u
f
in t seconds, and u
c
is the temperature of
surroundings.
Applying Newtons Law of cooling,
According to Newton Law of cooling
( )
0
d
K
dt
u
= u u
0
45 C u =
116
45
d
dt
u
=
u
} }
from t = 0s to t = 30s, u changes from 60
0
C to
55
0
C.
(K is constant)
55 30
60 0
45
d
K dt
u
=
u
} }
55 45
ln (30 0)
60 45
K
| |
=
|
\ .
50
55 30
45
t
d
K dt
u
=
u
} }
50 45
ln ( 30)
55 45
K t
| |
=
|
\ .
(i)
(ii)
117
Divide II by I to set :
50 45
ln
30
55 45
55 45
30
ln
60 45
t

30 ln2
30 ln3/ 2
t
=
2
30 1
ln3/ 2
ln
t
| |
= +
|
\ .
81.28 s =
time from u = 55
0
C to u = 50
0
C is (t - 30)
= (81.28-30) = 51.28s
118
Distribution of Energy in the Spectrum of
a Black Body
The figure shows a graph plotted between
spectral radiant intensity E
and wavelength of
the emitted radiations at a fixed temperature.
The graph shows that at a given temperature,
the spectral intensity is not uniformly distributed
among different wavelengths.
119
E
m
T = constant
m
120
It first increases with wavelength, reaches a
maximum at a particular wavelength
m
and then
decreases with increase in wavelength.
E
m
T = constant
m
Blackbody Radiation Graph
Experimental data for
distribution of energy in
blackbody radiation
As the temperature
increases, the total amount
of energy increases
As the temperature
increases, the peak of the
distribution shifts to
shorter wavelengths
121
Wiens Displacement Law
The wavelength of the peak of the
blackbody distribution was found to
follow Weins Displacement Law

max
T = 0.2898 x 10
-2
m K

max
is the wavelength at the curves
peak
T is the absolute temperature of the
object emitting the radiation

122
As the temperature of
the body increases, the
wavelength at which
the spectral intensity is
maximum shifts toward
left.
Therefore, it is also
called. Wiens
Displacement law.
123
Problem 9.
A blackened platinum wire, when gradually
heated, appears first dull red, then blue and
finally white. Why ?
Solution.
According to Wiens law,

m
T = constt, i.e,
m
= (constt.)/T
So when a black body is heated, l
m
decreases,
i.e., with rise in temperature the maximum
intensity of radiation emitted gets shifted
towards the shorter wavelengths. So the colour
of the heated object will change from that of
longer wavelength (red) to that of shorter (blue)
and when the temperature is sufficiently high
and all wavelengths are emitted, the colour will
become white (incandescent).
124
Problem 10.
On a winter night you feel warmer when clouds
cover the sky than when the sky is clear. Why ?
Solution.
In the day heat radiations coming from sun are
absorbed by the earth while in the night the
earth radiates this heat. Now as according to
Wiens law
m
T = constant, the temperature of
hot earth is much lesser than that of sun ( 6000
K); the wavelength of radiations emitted by the
earth will be of much longer wavelength than
that incident on it.
125
Now as clouds (and glass) have the property of
passing radiations of shorter wavelength and
reflecting longer ones, the heat emitted from the
earth will not pass through the clouds and, thus,
heat energy emitted by the earth is trapped
between the earth and the cloud causing warmer
nights.
(Had there been no clouds, the energy emitted
by the earth will be radiated in the sky causing
cool nights. )
126
Note: Similarly if sunlight enters a glass room
the glass acts as a one way gate, i.e.,
allows the heat of shorter wavelengths
(coming from sun) to enter the room and
does not allows the longer wavelength
radiations emitted by the heated objects
in the room to escape from it (by
reflecting them).
In this way energy is trapped in the glass
house and the room will be gradually
warmed up. This effect is called green
house effect as it is used to keep the
plants in warm atmosphere in winters by
placing them in a glass house exposed to
sun.
127

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(b) Density of the liquid decreases as the

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