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COURSE OUTLINE
Matter
OBJECTIVES: AT THE END OF THIS LECTURE YOU SHOULD BE ABLE TO: Define and give examples of
atoms, molecules, ions, isotopes, elements, compounds, mixtures Dispersions: solutions, colloids, suspensions
Explain
the difference between homogenous & heterogenous dispersions systems how different types of binding occur
INTRODUCTION
There is great diversity in life but there are some basic unifying substances. The processes that sustain living things must be explored both in the visible and invisible realm.
DEFINITIONS
Chemical
phenomenon
Any
Chemical
DEFINITIONS
Physical
phenomenon
Any
ELEMENTS
Substances
approx.109 identified, 92 occur naturally and 17 synthesized. Living organisms contain only about 20.
ELEMENTS
Elements
are denoted by one or two letters derived from their English or Latin names
carbon (C), hydrogen (H), sodium (Na), calcium (Ca) and oxygen (O).
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ATOMS
The smallest part of an element that can take part in a chemical change (atomos indivisible).
Atoms consist largely of empty space. Nucleus the centre of an atom, very small volume
Virtually
all of the weight of an atom is compacted in the centre (occupying a space equivalent to a marble in a football field)
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ATOMS - NUCLEUS
Nucleus
ATOMS- NUCLEUS
Nucleus
orbited by electrons of negligible mass. Electrons negatively charged Electrons about 1/1,800 the mass of a proton The smallest atom, an atom of hydrogen, consists of one proton and one electron.
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ATOMS
Held
together as a unit by the electrical attraction exerted between the oppositely charged protons and electrons.
charge of the atom is neutral since number of protons equals the number of electrons
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Overall
ATOMS
All
consist of the same three types of subatomic particles (protons, neutrons and electrons). are therefore distinguished by the atomic number.
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They
ATOMS
The
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ATOMS- ISOTOPES
Isotopes Atoms which have the same number of protons (atomic number) but different number of neutrons (therefore different atomic mass).
In
ATOMS- ISOTOPES
Example
Hydrogen has three isotopes with 0, 1 or 2 neutrons. Hydrogen therefore exists in three different forms
Hydrogen: Proton = 1; Neutron = 0; Electrons =1 Deuterium: Proton = 1; Neutron = 2; Electrons =1 Tritium: Proton = 1; Neutron = 3; Electrons =1
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ISOTOPES OF HYDROGEN
Hydrogen
Atomic # 1 Mass # 1
Deuterium
Atomic # 1 Mass # 2
Tritium
Atomic # 1 Mass # 3
Symbol:
Symbol:
Symbol:
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ATOMS- ELECTRONS
Electrons Arranged in shells/ orbitals around the nucleus. Each shell can hold a specific amount of electrons.
1st shell can hold 2 electrons, 2nd shell 8
When
one shell is filled, additional electrons go into the next shell farther away from the nucleus. 20
ATOMS- ELECTRONS
Example
Chlorines 17 electrons are held 2 in 1st shell, 8 in the next shell and 7 in the last. Chlorines electron configuration may be written (1s22s82p7).
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ELECTRONS
Nitrogens
seven electrons are accommodated 2 in 1st shell, 5 in the next shell N= 7 (2:5)
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ATOMS- ELECTRONS
Elements
All
other elements have a tendency to want to obtain a full shell through reaction with other elements. 23
Electron Shells
1s2 2s2 2p2 1s1 1s2 2s2 2p4 1s2 2s2 2p3 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p3 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4
Valency
4 1 2 3 or 5 3 or 5 2 or 6 or 4
Mass #
12 1 16 14 31 32
MOLECULES + COMPOUNDS
The
atoms of most elements can interact with similar or other atoms to form larger, more complex structures called molecules. Eg. H2
molecule containing two or more types of elements chemically combined is called a compound e.g.,
water (hydrogen & oxygen); glucose (carbon, hydrogen & oxygen); sodium chloride (sodium & chlorine)
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COMPOUNDS
Different
BONDS
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BONDS
ionic (transfer of electrons) and covalent (sharing of electrons) there are other types
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IONIC BONDS
(TRANSFER OF ELECTRONS)
Some
atoms are so electron attracting (electronegative) that they can capture electrons from the outer shell of other atoms Electrons end up being transferred from one atom to another. E.g. Formation of Sodium Chloride (NaCl) Atoms of sodium are being bonded to chlorine
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IONIC BONDS
(TRANSFER
OF ELECTRONS)
Na = 11 (2: 8: 1); Cl = 17 ( 2: 8: 7) Chlorine will capture the one electron in the outer shell of sodium. Cl now has 17 protons and 18 electrons (a net negative charge). Cl- anion Na is left with 11 protons and 10 electrons (a net positive charge). Na+ cation
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IONIC BONDS
(TRANSFER
OF ELECTRONS)
Oppositely
charged ions attract one another, forming a linkage called the ionic bond. Electrically charged particles are called ions.
Ionic
bonds usually form between charged groups that are of large, complex biological molecules e.g., proteins.
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COVALENT BONDS
(SHARING ELECTRONS)
Electrons
in this type of bond are shared between atoms, so that each has a stable complete outer energy shell. number of bonds that are formed depend on the number of electrons needed to fill the outer shell.
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The
COVALENT BONDS
(SHARING ELECTRONS)
Eg.,
hydrogen molecule (H2) consists of two atoms of hydrogen. Hydrogen has a single electron in its outer shell and so can combine with another hydrogen atom.
COVALENT BONDS
Hydrogen Molecule
Chlorine Molecule
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COVALENT BONDS
Double
(e.g, O2) and triple covalent bonds (e.g., N3) also occur.
Different atoms can be covalently bonded to each other. Eg. methane has H bonded with C.
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POLAR BONDS
Formed
during the sharing of electrons between two atoms of different electronegativity e.g., water (H2O). Waters single O atom attracts electrons much more than its two H atoms.
The
electrons associate more with O which becomes slightly negative as a result; H atoms become slightly positive.
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POLAR BONDS
Molecules
with unequal charge distribution are said to be polar (unequal sharing of electrons). molecules possess distinct positive and negative regions, or poles, and attract each other leading to the formation of the bond
Polar
HYDROGEN BONDS
Hydrogen
bonding occurs when an atom of hydrogen is attracted by rather strong forces to two atoms instead of only one, so that it may be considered to be acting as a bond between them
Eg.
Partially positively charged hydrogen atom lies between partially negatively charged oxygen or nitrogen atoms
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MIXTURES
Mixtures
differ from molecules and compounds in that they may be of variable composition.
A solution
of sodium chloride (NaCl, table salt) in water is a mixture of two substances. There can be any amount of water and any amount of sodium chloride.
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MIXTURES
Separation
of mixtures can be accomplished by some physical process (as opposed to a chemical reaction).
Eg. Sodium chloride in water If left to evaporate, water will leave the salt behind.
Most
DISPERSION SYSTEMS- SOLUTIONS True solutions consist of a solvent and one or more solutes Proportions of solute and solvent vary from one solution to another (whereas pure substance has fixed composition). The solvent is the medium in which the solutes are dissolved.
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Ions - atoms, groups of atoms that would normally be neutral but now have become charged by the gain or loss of an electron.
Negative ions (anions) have more electrons in its shells than protons in its nucleus. Eg. O2 Positive ions (cations) have less electrons in its shells than protons in its nucleus. Eg. H+
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mixture have the solute molecules relatively small in comparison to the solvent molecules. Solutions may involve many different forms of matter; a solid, liquid, or gas can act as either a solvent or solute. Most common kinds of solutions have liquids as the solvent.
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The
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heterogeneous mixture in which the large solute-like particles immediately settle out after mixing with a solvent like phase.
example, sand is stirred into water. The solute does not dissolve.
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For
Intermediate kind of a mixture (between homogenous, solution and totally heterogeneous, suspension) in which the solute like particles, or dispersed phase, are suspended in the solvent-like phase or dispersing medium.
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particles of the dispersed solute are large in comparison to the solvent but small enough to remain suspended and settling is negligible.
Solute
particles large enough to make the mixture appear cloudy (or opaque) because light is scattered as it passes through the colloid. Suspension therefore heterogenous.
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DISPERSION SYSTEMS- COLLOIDS If left for a long time, flocculation occurs, that is, the particles come together then settle out.
Colloid
Classification
hydrophilic (water loving) or hydrophobic (water hating) based on the surface characteristics of the dispersed particles.
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eg. haemoglobin form hydrophilic sols when they are suspended in saline aqueous body fluids eg. blood plasma. proteins fold and twist in an aqueous solvent so that polar groups are exposed to the fluid, while non-polar groups are encased.
These
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in human cells are examples of gels. The solute are mainly proteins and carbohydrates and the solvent aqueous)
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solutes cannot exist in polar solvents without the presence of emulsifying agents. Emulsifiers coat the solute to prevent their coagulation into a separate phase. In milk, the fat is emulsified by casein. In mayonnaise, the vegetable oil is emulsified by egg yolk.
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EMULSIONS
Two
liquids are immiscible and there do not dissolve in each other. Liquid in liquid colloid e.g., oil and water.
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COLLOIDS
Adsorption The adhesion of the molecules of liquids, gases, and dissolved substances to the surfaces of solids
(as opposed to absorption, in which the molecules actually enter the absorbing medium).
Colloidal
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ADSORPTION
Charcoal,
for example, is used in industry to remove colors from solutions, since they adsorb many coloring materials and carry these with them when separated from the solution.
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