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Definitions International Phonetic Alphabet Speech Mechanism The Organs of Speech Sounds of Speech Processes of Speech Production Importance of sounds in denture construction Speech Records

 Phonetics is the study of production of

speech sounds.

Spoken language is produced by the movements of the organs of speech. All human beings have the same organs of speech. So, theoretically speaking, every normal human being can produce any of the sounds of human speech.

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Speech Sounds
How How

they are produced: articulatory they are perceived: auditory physical aspects: acoustic

Their

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Transcription
The most widely used tool in phonetics is transcription A standardized set of symbols for converting the continuous acoustic stream into discrete, linguistically relevant symbolic units The International Phonetic Alphabet is the most widely used transcription tool

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The common vowels in General American English, each represented by a symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet and illustrated in a word

The Consonants symbols and identifying key words of 25 consonants are as follows:

The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)

Necessary because:
1) Inadequacy of orthography (spelling): a) one letter/digraph different sounds laugh ([f]) bright () ghost ([g]) b) one sound different letters believe ([i]ee) people ([i]) tree ([i]): 2) Cross-linguistic variation in orthography: Different languages have different ways of representing the same sound-a) [k] : ch in Italian (Chianti) b) initial sound in church is written ci (ciao) 3) A single sound is represented by more than one letter 5/2/2012 9 gh = [f] in laugh, f = [f] in fall etc.

1) Audition
2)Respiration

3) Phonation
4) Resonation

5) Articulation
6) Neurological integration
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Nasal Cavity

Throat (pharynx)

Nose
Mouth

Windpipe (Trachea) Bronchus Bronchiole Left lungs

Ribs

Alveolus

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Diaphragm

MB

1) Audition

and ability to hear sound

2) Respiration
It is the act of expelling a column of air past the vocal cord by the expiratory muscles,

3) Phonation
As the expiratory air is expelled and leaves the lungs,

The vocal folds modify the stream of air by creating resistance to it adduction, vibration of approximated vocal folds of the
larynx and complex tone is generated Vowel sounds and

voiced consonants phones.

abducted vocal folds (without vibration) and phonation

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does not occur. They are the so called the voiceless consonants (e.g. huh).

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4) Resonation
Resonance is amplification of voice tone. The sound waves produced at the vocal folds are selectively amplified, by changing in the volume (shape and size) of pharyngeal, oral and nasal cavities, these cavities act as resonating chambers (resonators) permitted by neuromuscular control.

5) Articulation (modification of sounds)

The breath stream is shaped into sounds through impedance produced by the various articulators. : the vocal folds, the velum and the pharynx, the tongue,the lips and the alveoli.

6) Neurological integration
All factors are highly coordinated by the central 5/2/2012 nervous system.
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Anatomy and physiology of human respiration and phonation

The Organs of Speech

The

respiratory system

The

phonatory system The articulatory system

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Organs of Speech
Respiratory System Phonatory System Articulatory System

Lungs

Muscles of the chest

Trachea

Pharynx

Lips

Teeth

Larynx Vocal cords

Teeth ridge

Roof of the mouth

Tongue

Hard palate Blade

Soft palate Front

Uvula

Tip
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Back

Rims
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The Organs of Speech

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Aerodynamic Model

Air flow from higher to lower pressure

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The Roof Of The Mouth

The Roof Of The Mouth Can Be Subdivided Into Four Parts:
The teeth-ridge or the alveolar ridge, i.e.,
the hard convex surface just behind the upper front teeth

The hard palate, i.e., the hard concave

surface behind the teeth-ridge

The soft palate, i.e., the soft portion behind

the hard palate

The uvula, i.e., a small fleshy structure at the

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end of the soft palate

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Muscles of the tongue

(speech, swallowing and mastication)

Genioglossus Hypoglossus Palatoglossus Styloglossus

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Muscle of the pharynx

Pharyngeal constrictors Laryngeal elevators Palatal muscles

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The larynx
The air from the lungs comes

through the wind pipe or trachea,

at the top of which is the larynx. In the larynx are two vocal cords,

which are like a pair of lips placed

horizontally from front to back. They are joined in the front, but

can be separated at the back, and

the opening between them is called the glottis. 5/2/2012
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Structure of the larynx

3 main cartilages:

large, semicircular thyroid (Adams apple) (connected upwards to hyoid bone by thyrohyoid muscle/ligament smaller, solid cricoid with signet ring shape: higher at back than front 2 small, pyramid-shaped arytenoids sitting on top of posterior surface of cricoid

Vocal folds connect vocal process of arytenoids to inner front of thyroid cartilage

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Front view

Rear view

Side view

View from top

Vertical structure of the vocal folds during one vibratory cycle

The folds are threedimensional, and they vibrate in three dimensions. The pattern of vibration is like a wave travelling up them. 2 The lower sections part first, and come together first. Cover (outer layers) and body (inner layers) of folds are often distinguished. 3
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After Stevens (1998) Acoustic Phonetics 25

Starting and stopping voicing

Front view

Rear view

Side view

Abduction: arytenoids rotated backwards and apart (posterior cricoarytenoid muscle) Adduction: arytenoids moved together (interarytenoid, lateral cricoarytenoid muscles)

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Starting and stopping voicing

Front view

Rear view

Side view

Abduction: arytenoids rotated backwards and apart (posterior cricoarytenoid muscle) Adduction: arytenoids moved together (interarytenoid, lateral cricoarytenoid muscles)

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Starting and stopping voicing

Front view

Rear view

Side view

Abduction: arytenoids rotated backwards and apart (posterior cricoarytenoid muscle) Adduction: arytenoids moved together (interarytenoid, lateral cricoarytenoid muscles)

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Pitch control

Front view

Rear view

Side view

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Increasing pitch: contracting cricothyroid muscle: pulls front of cricoid up towards thyroid, so back of cricoid moves down and back, taking arytenoids with it and stretching/tensing vfs vibrate faster vocalist shortens and tenses vocal folds

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Pitch control

Front view

Rear view

Side view

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Increasing pitch: contracting cricothyroid muscle: pulls front of cricoid up towards thyroid, so back of cricoid moves down and back, taking arytenoids with it and stretching/tensing vfs vibrate faster vocalist shortens and tenses vocal folds

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Articulation

is the production of the speech sounds of language, those smallest units which, not carrying meaning themselves (Vowels, Consonants and Diphthongs), are combined to form morphemes (words).
the smallest meaningful units of the language - words

Morphemes
Allophones

variants of that sound, and they are appropriately grouped into a family, called a "phoneme

Phoneme (segmentation) Phoneme can have an

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infinite number of allophones it may be pronounced by many 31 different way

Phones vs Phonemes vs Allophone

Phones acoustically different speech sounds

Phonemes sounds of speech that takes a different

meanings Pot vs dot

Allophone different phones corresponding to the same

phoneme Spin s(p)in vs pin (p h ) in Ray vs tray Ray and tray are the same sound (i.e.) the same phoneme but in reality the two sounds are different the r in ray is voiced and non fricative while the r in 5/2/2012 32 tray is voiceless and fricative

English aspiration present or absent, depending on position in syllable

syllable-initial syllable-medial syllable-final Pit Tack [ph] [th] spit stack [p] [t] sip sit [p] [t]

Care

[kh]

scare

[k]

sick

[k]

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Allophones of /t/

What we would consider a single sound can be pronounced differently depending on the phonetic context. For example, the phoneme /t/:

More phonetic structure

Syllables

Composed of vowels and consonants. Not well defined. Something like a vowel nucleus with some of its surrounding consonants.
Some syllables have more energy than others Stressed syllables versus unstressed syllables (an) INsult vs. (to) inSULT (an) OBject vs. (to) obJECT Unstressed vowels are generally transcribed as schwa:

Stress

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ax

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Articulatory phonetics properties of the

production mechanism, it is concerned with the movements of muscles and other bits of anatomy which produce human speech sounds

Acoustic phonetics is the study of the physical

properties of the speech sounds, as transmitted between mouth and ear. such as duration and energy. It relies on instrumental analysis to extract these properties

Auditory phonetics is the study of perceptual

response of speech sounds as mediated by ear, 5/2/2012 auditory nerve and brain
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There are 4 processes involved in speech production:-

The Air stream Process The Phonation Process

The Oro-Nasal Process

The Articulatory Process
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Three types of air-stream mechanism:

pulmonic
in which the lungs and the respiratory muscles set the airstream in motion (Contract lungs)

glottalic
in which the larynx, with the glottis firmly closed, is moved up or down to initiate the air-stream

Velaric
in which the back of the tongue in firm contact with the soft palate is pushed forward or pulled back to initiate the air-stream ( Expand portion of oral cavity )

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 These

air-streams can be:

Egressive, i.e., the air is pushed out e.g., Sounds of English and Hindi are produced with egressive pulmonic airstream. (forcing air out, ) Ingressive, i.e., the air is pulled in e.g., Sindhi has some sounds produced with an ingressive glottalic air-stream.(sucking air in )
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Phonation occurs at the GLOTTIS, All pulmonic

sounds are either VOICED or VOICELESS. VOICED sounds: ADDucted V C. VOICELESS sounds : ABDUCTED V C.

in voiceless sounds There is usually a

slight hiss produced at the glottis but no

buzz.
There are other possible positions for the vocal
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cords, such as in WHISPER or CREAK,

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The State of the Glottis

(phonation Process)

When we breath in and out, the glottis is

open. That is, the vocal cords are drawn

wide apart producing voiceless sounds.

If the vocal cords are held loosely together, the pressure of the air coming from the lungs makes them vibrate; that is,

they open and close regularly many times

a second. Sounds produced in this way are
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called voiced sounds.

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Voicing
Cords vibrating - voiced
are accompanied by vibration of the VOCAL CORDS (ADDucted)

Cords open voiceless sounds are produced with

the vocal cords ABDUCTED, leaving a sizeable gap between the vocal folds. This gap is what we call the GLOTTIS
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There are 4 processes involved in speech production:-

The Air stream Process The Phonation Process

The Oro-Nasal Process

The Articulatory Process
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3- State of the soft palate

Oro-nasal process

Raised

Lowered

Nasal passage blocked

Oral sounds produced

Nasal passage open

Oral passage blocked

Oral passage open

Nasal sounds produced

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Nasalized sounds produced

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3- State of the soft palate

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4-The Articulators

The organs of speech above the glottis are the articulators involved in the production of consonants:

Active articulator the lower lip and the tongue Passive articulator the upper lip, the upper teeth, the roof of the mouth and the back wall of the throat (or Pharynx).

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In the production of a consonant, the active articulator is moved towards the passive articulator.

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PLACE

ACTIVE ARTICULATOR

PASSIVE ARTICULATOR Upper lip Upper teeth Upper teeth Alveolar ridge Hard palate Hard palate

Bilabial Lower lip Labio-dental Lower lip Dental Tip of tongue Alveolar Blade of tongue Retroflex Tip of tongue Palatal Front of tongue

Velar
Uvular
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Middle of tongue
Back of tongue

Velum (soft palate)

Uvula
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Articulators
teeth
lips Alveolar ridge palate velum uvula

pharyngeal larynx
vocal folds:glottis trachea

Places of articulation
dental
labial alveolar

post-alveolar/palatal
velar uvular

pharyngeal
laryngeal/glottal

Classification of sounds according to laryngeal action and manner of production

1- Surds: are any voiceless sounds
2- Sonants: are open voiced sounds relatively unimpeded by the oral valves 3- Consonants: are articulated speech sound A- Stops (plosives): Are characterized by complete stoppage of the air stream by the valves, building up of pressure in the oral cavity, and sudden release and explosion of the breath (e.g. P,B). B -The fricatives: Characterized by friction of the air stream, being forced through loosely closed articulators or narrow 5/2/2012 51 passageway e.g. /S/, /f/, /z/.

C- The affricates: The affricates (also called "affricatives") are combinations of two consonants e.g. d3

D- Nasal: A nasal is produced by a stricture of complete oral closure, but in this case there is no closure of nasal passage. The soft palate is lowered and the air passes through the nose. E.g. N, M
E-The Glides: Involves relatively little impedance of air stream their distinctive characteristic is that they vary acoustically physiologically during their duration e.g. H, W, J, Hw. F- Semi vowels: Involve the least impedance of the 5/2/2012 breath stream of all, e.g. R, L.

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Manner
The MANNER of an articulation specifies the DEGREE of STRICTURE, i.e. the narrowing of the oral tract, which is required to produce a particular sound. We distinguish 3 different DEGREES of STRICTURE, as follows:-

STRICTURE Complete Closure

DEFINITION Active & passive articulators touching: no air can escape through the oral tract

CLASS Stops

Articulators close enough to Close produce audible friction in Approximation the airstream, but air can escape orally Open Articulators not close enough Approximation to produce audible friction

Fricatives Approxim ants

All speech sounds must fall into one of these three categories. Any speech 5/2/2012 53 sound is therefore identifiable as a STOP, a FRICATIVE or an APPROXIMANT.

Sounds according to laryngeal action and manner of production

Classification of sounds according to The Place of Articulation

This method of classification of sounds is
probably most meaningful to the prosthodontist since it highlights those consonants most affected by dental conditions

1- Vowels (Sonants)

2- consonants and
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3- Diphthongs.

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