PA Chapter02

SBN 0-13-146913-4
Prentice-Hall, 2006
Chapter 2
Modeling the
Process and Life
Cycle
Copyright 2006 Pearson/Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.
Pfleeger and Atlee, Software Engineering: Theory and Practice Page 2.2
2006 Pearson/Prentice Hall
Contents
2.1 The Meaning of Process
2.2 Software Process Models
2.3 Tools and Techniques for Process Modeling
2.4 Practical Process Modeling
2.5 nformation System Example
2.6 Real Time Example
2.7 What this Chapter Means for You
Chapter 2 Objectives
W What we mean by a "process
W Software development products, processes, and
resources
W Several models of the software development
process
W Tools and techniques for process modeling
W A process: a series of steps involving activities,
constrains, and resources that produce an
intended ouput of some kind
W A process involves a set of tools and techniques
Process Characteristics
W Prescribes aII major process activities
W Uses resources, subject to set of constraints (such as
scheduIe)
W Produces intermediate and finaI products
W May be composed of subprocesses with hierarchy or
Iinks
W Each process activity has entry and exit criteria
W Activities are organized in sequence, so timing is cIear
W Each process has guiding principIes, incIuding goaIs of
each activity
W Constraints may appIy to an activity, resource or product
The Importance of Processes
W mpose consistency and structure on a set of
activities
W uide us to understand, control, examine, and
improve the activities
W Enable us to capture our experiences and pass
them along
2.2 Software Process ModeIs
Reasons for ModeIing a Process
W To form a common understanding
W To find inconsistencies, redundancies, omissions
W To find and evaluate appropriate activities for
reaching process goals
W To tailor a general process for a particular
situation in which it will be used
Software Life CycIe
W When a process involves building a software, the
process may be referred to as software life cycle
Requirements analysis and definition
System (architecture) design
Program (detailed/procedural) design
Writing programs (coding/implementation)
Testing: unit, integration, system
System delivery (deployment)
Maintenance
Software DeveIopment Process ModeIs
W Waterfall model
W ' model
W Prototyping model
W perational specification
W Transformational model
W Phased development: increments and iterations
W Spiral model
W Agile methods
WaterfaII ModeI
W ne of the first process development models
proposed
W Works for well understood problems with minimal
or no changes in the requirements
W Simple and easy to explain to customers
W t presents
a very high-level view of the development process
sequence of process activities
W Each major phase is marked by milestones and
deliverables (artifacts)
WaterfaII ModeI (continued)
WaterfaII ModeI (continued)
W There is no iteration in waterfall model
W Most software developments apply a great many
iterations
Sidebar 2.1 Drawbacks of The WaterfaII ModeI
W Provides no guidance how to handle changes to
products and activities during development
(assumes requirements can be frozen)
W 'iews software development as manufacturing
process rather than as creative process
W There is no iterative activities that lead to creating
a final product
W Long wait before a final product
WaterfaII ModeI with Prototype
W A prototype is a partially developed product
W Prototyping helps
developers assess alternative design strategies (design
prototype)
users understand what the system will be like (user
interface prototype)
W Protopyping is useful for verification and validation
WaterfaII ModeI with Prototype (continued)
W Waterfall model with prototyping
V ModeI (study in book 73)
W A variation of the waterfall model
W &ses unit testing to verify procedural design
W &ses integration testing to verify architectural
(system) design
W &ses acceptance testing to validate the
requirements
W f problems are found during verification and
validation, the left side of the ' can be re-
executed before testing on the right side is re-
enacted
V ModeI (continued)
Prototyping ModeI
W Allows repeated investigation of the requirements
or design
W Reduces risk and uncertainty in the development
OperationaI Specificiation ModeI
W Requirements are executed (examined) and their
implication evaluated early in the development
process
W unctionality and the design are allowed to be
merged
TransformationaI ModeI
W ewer major development steps
W Applies a series of transformations to change a
specification into a deliverable system
Change data representation
Select algorithms
ptimize
Compile
W Relies on formalism
W Requires formal specification (to allow
transformations)
TransformationaI ModeI (continued)
Phased DeveIopment: Increments and Iterations
W Shorter cycle time
W System delivered in pieces
enables customers to have some functionality while the
rest is being developed
W Allows two systems functioning in parallel
the production system (release n): currently being used
the development system (release n+1): the next
version
(continued)
(continued)
W IncrementaI deveIopment: starts with small functional
subsystem and adds functionality with each new release
W Iterative deveIopment: starts with full system, then changes
functionality of each subsystem with each new release
(continued)
W Phased development is desirable for several
reasons
Training can begin early, even though some functions are
missing
Markets can be created early for functionality that has
never before been offered
requent releases allow developers to fix unanticipated
problems globaly and quickly
The development team can focus on different areas of
expertise with different releases
SpiraI ModeI
W Suggested by Boehm (1988)
W Combines development activities with risk
management to minimize and control risks
W The model is presented as a spiral in which each
iteration is represented by a circuit around four
major activities
Plan
Determine goals, alternatives, and constraints
Evaluate alternatives and risks
Develop and test
SpiraI ModeI (continued)
AgiIe Methods
W Emphasis on flexibility in producing software quickly
and capably
W Agile manifesto
'alue individuals and interactions over process and tools
Prefer to invest time in producing working software rather
than in producing comprehensive documentation
ocus on customer collaboration rather than contract
negotiation
Concentrate on responding to change rather than on
creating a plan and then following it
AgiIe Methods: ExampIes of AgiIe Process
W Extreme programming (XP)
W Crystal: a collection of approaches based on the
notion that every project needs a unique set of
policies and conventions
W Scrum: 30-day iterations; multiple self-organizing
teams; daily "scrum coordination
W Adaptive software development (ASD)
AgiIe Methods: Extreme Programming
W Emphasis on four characteristics of agility
ommunication: continual interchange between
customers and developers
Simplicity: select the simplest design or implementation
ourage: commitment to delivering functionality early
and often
Feedback: loops built into the various activitites during
the development process
AgiIe Methods: TweIve Facets of XP
W The planning game
customer defines value)
W Small releases
W Metaphor common vision,
common names)
W Simple design
W Writing tests first
W Refactoring
W Pair programming
W Collective ownership
W Continuous integration
small increments)
W Sustainable pace 40
hours/week)
W n-site customer
W Coding standards
Sidebar 2.2 When is Extreme Too Extreme?
W Extreme programming's practices are
interdependent
A vulnerability if one of them is modified
W Requirements expressed as a set of test cases
must be passed by the software
System passes the tests but is not what the customer
is paying for
W Refactoring issue
Difficult to rework a system without degrading its
architecture
Sidebar 2.3 CoIIections of Process ModeIs
W Development process is a problem-solving activity
W Curtis, Krasner, and scoe (1988) performed a field
study to determine which problem-solving factors to
captured in process model
W The results suggest a layered behavioral model as
supplement to the traditional model
W Process model should not only describe series of
tasks, but also should detail factors that contribute to
a project's inherent uncertainty and risk
W Notation depends on what we want to capture in
the model
W The two major notation categories
Static model: depicts the process
Dynamic model: enacts the process
2.3 TooIs and Techniques for Process
ModeIing
W Elements of a process are viewed in terms of
seven types
Activity
Sequence
Process model
Resource
Control
Policy
rganization
W Several templates, such as an Artifact Definition
Template
2.3 TooIs and Techniques for Process ModeIing
Static ModeIing: Lai Notation
Name Car
Synopsis This is the artifact that represents a class of cars.
Complexity type Composite
Data type (carc, user-defined)
ArtiIact-state list
parked ((stateof(car.engine) off)
(stateof(car.gear) park)
(stateof(car.speed)
stand))
Car is not moving, and
engine is not running.
initiated ((stateof(car.engine) on)
(stateof(car.keyhole)
has-key)
(stateof(car-driver(car.))
in-car)
(stateof(car.gear) drive)
(stateof(car.speed)
stand))
Car is not moving, but the
engine is running
moving ((stateof(car.engine) on)
(stateof(car.keyhole)
has-key)
(stateof(car-driver(car.))
driving)
((stateof(car.gear)
drive) or (stateof(car.gear)
reverse))
((stateof(car.speed)
stand) or
(stateof(car.speed) slow)
or (stateof(car.speed)
medium) or
(stateof(car.speed)
high))
Car is moving forward or
backward.
Sub-artiIact list
doors The four doors of a car.
engine The engine of a car.
keyhole The ignition keyhole of a
car.
gear The gear of a car.
speed The speed of a car.
Relations list
car-key This is the relation between a car and a key.
car-driver This is the relation between a car and a driver.

Static ModeIing: Lai Notation
Static ModeIing: Lai Notation (continued)
W The process of starting a car
Static ModeIing: Lai Notation (continued)
W Transition diagram illustrates the transition for a
car
W Enables enaction of process to see what happens
to resources and artifacts as activities occur
W Simulate alternatives and make changes to
improve the process
W Example: systems dynamics model
Dynamic ModeIing
W ntroduced by orrester in the 1950's
W Abdel-Hamid and Madnick applied it to software
development
W ne way to understand system dynamics is by
exploring how software development process
affects productivity
Dynamic ModeIing: System Dynamics
Dynamic ModeIing: System Dynamics (continued)
W PictoriaI presentation of factors affecting productivity
W Arrows indicate how changes in one factor change
another
Dynamic ModeIing: System Dynamics (continued)
W A system
dynamic
modeI
containing
four major
areas
affecting
productivity
Sidebar 2.4 Process Programming
W A program to describe and enact the process
Eliminate uncertainty
Basis of an automated environment to produce software
W Does not capture inherent variability of underlying
development process
mplementation environment, skill, experience,
understanding the customer needs
W Provides only sequence of tasks
W ives no warning of impending problems
2.4 PracticaI Process ModeIing
MarveI Case Studies
W &ses Marvel process language (MPL)
W Three constructs: classes, rules, tool envelopes
W Three-part process description
rule-based specification of process behavior
object-oriented definition of model's information
process
set of envelopes to interface between Marvel and
external software tools
MarveI Case Studies (continued)
W nvolved two AT&T networks
network carried phone calls
signaling network responsible for routing calls and
balancing the network load
W Marvel was used to describe the signaling fault
resolution
MarveI Case Studies (continued)
W Signaling ault Resolution Process
ExampIe of MarveI Commands
TCKET:: superclass ENTTY
status : (initial, open, referred_out, referral_done,
closed, fixed) = initial;
diagnostics : (terminal, non_terminal, none) = none;
level : integer;
description : text;
referred_to : link WRKCENTER;
referrals : set_of link TCKET;
process : link PRC_NST;
end
diagnose [?t: TCKET]:
(exists PRC_NST ?p suchthat (linkto [?t.process ?p]))
:
(and (?t.status = open}(?t.diagnostics = none))
{TCKET_&TL diagnose ?t.Name}
(and (?t.diagnostics = terminal)
(?p.last_task = diagnose)
(?p.next_task = refer_to_WC3));
(and (?t.diagnostics = non_terminal)
(?p.last_task = diagnose)
(?p.next_task = refer_to_WC2));
Class
definition
for trouble
tickets
Rulefor
diagnosing
ticket

DesirabIe Properties of Process ModeIing TooIs and
Techniques
W acilitates human understanding and
communication
W Supports process improvement
W Supports process management
W Provides automated guidance in performing the
process
W Supports automated process execution
2.5 Information System ExampIe
PiccadiIIy TeIevision Advertising System
W Needs a system that is easily maintained and
changed
W Requirements may change
Waterfall model is not applicable
W &ser interface prototyping is an advantage
W There is uncertainty in regulation and business
constraints
Need to manage risks
W Spiral model is the most appropriate
PiccadiIIy System (continued)
W Risk can be viewed in terms of two facets
Probability: the likelyhood a particular problem may
occur
Severity: the impact it will have on the system
W To manage risk, it needs to include
characterization of risks in the process model
Risk is an artifact that needs to be described
Lai Artifact TabIe for PiccadiIIy System
Name Risk (problemX)

Synopsis This is the artifact that represents the risk that problem X
will occur and have a negative affect on some aspect of the
development process.
Complexity type Composite
Data type (risk_s, user_defined)
Artifact-state list
low ((state_of(probability.x) = low)
(state_of(severity.x) = small))
Probability of problem is
low, severity problem
impact is small.
high-medium ((state_of(probability.x) = low)
(state_of(severity.x) = large))
low, severity problem
impact is large.
low-medium ((state_of(probability.x) = high)
(state_of(severity.x) = small))
high, severity problem
impact is small.
high ((state_of(probability.x) = high)
(state_of(severity.x) = large))
high, severity problem
impact is large.
Sub-artifact list
probability.x The probability that
problem X will occur.
severity.x The severity of the
impact should problem
X occur on the project.

2.6 ReaI Time ExampIe
Ariane-5 Software
W nvolved reuse of software from Ariane-4
W The reuse process model
dentify resuable subprocesses, describe them and
place them in a library
Examine the requirements for the new software and
the reusable components from library and produce
revised set of requirements
&se the revised requirements to design the software
Evaluate all reused design components to certify the
correctness and consistency
Build or change the software
2.6 ReaI Time ExampIe
Ariane-5 Software (continued)
W Reuse process model presentation
2.7 What this Chapter Means for You
W Process development involves activities,
resources, and product
W Process model includes organizational,
functional, behavioral, and other perspectives
W A process model is useful for guiding team
behavior, coordination, and collaboration

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