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8 August 2006 IC Engines Laboratory, IIT Madras 1 of 133 1
Gas Turbine Power Plant
320 – 420 oC
1200 – 1500 oC
1500 – 1800oC
Another name for rotating machine is
turbo-machine.
• In gas turbine power plant there are two of
them
Compressor
Turbine

Compressors are classified in two categories.
• Centrifugal compressors
• Axial flow compressors

Centrifugal Compressor
Axial Compressor
In these machines two things
happen
• Energy transfer
• Energy transformation

• What is energy energy transfer?
• Energy transfer means transfer of
available energy from one part (rotor) to
the medium (fluid) or vice versa.
• The energy transfer can occur only in
moving parts.

• What is energy energy transformation?
• Energy transformation means change of one
form of energy into another form.
Eg. kinetic energy to pressure energy in a
compressor.
• Energy transformation can occur in both
stationary and rotating elements.

• Both turbo-machines are mainly
concerned with energy transfer.
• Compressor : Energy is
transferred from the rotor to the
fluid
• Turbine : Energy is transferred
from fluid to the rotor.
In this chapter, we will make
three types of analysis of the
rotating machines.
• fluid dynamic analysis
• thermodynamic analysis
• dimensional analysis
Fluid flow through a rotor
Energy transfer in a turbo-machine
• The angular speed of the rotor is ω radians
per second.
2πN
ω=
60
• The pheripheral velocities of the blades at

the entry and exit corresponding to
diameters d1 and d2 are
πNd1
u1 =
60
πNd 2
u2 =
60
r r r
The three velocity vectors ,u and
c atw
a section (or station) are related by the
simple vector equation
r r r
c =u+w
• The absolute velocity c at both the entry
and exit has a tangential component ct
and a radial component cr.

Torque = Rate of change in
moment of momentum
Consider unit mass flow
Angular moment of momentum at inlet
= ct1r1
Angular moment of momentum at exit = ct2 r2
T = ct1r1 − ct 2 r2
E  T
   ct1r1  ct 2 r2 
 ct1r1  ct 2 r2
 ct1u1  ct 2u2
The above equation is the Euler’s energy equation.

Analysis
• If ct1 u1 > ct2 u2 then what?
Energy transfer is positive.
(ii) If ct1 u1 < ct2 u2 , then the energy

transfer is negative.

What do you understand by positive
energy transfer?
Transfer of energy from fluid to rotor
(energy transfer in a turbine)
ET  ct1u1  ct 2u2
Negative energy transfer means energy
transfer from rotor to the fluid as in
compressor.
EC  ct 2u2  ct1u1
Assumptions in deriving the above
equations:
• Flow is steady
• Applies to every infinitesimal stream
line
• No discontinuity of pressure

What do you understand by “the flow to be
steady”?
There should not be any change in
• angular velocity
• flow rate
• fluid properties and
• heat transfer rate
with respect to time.

Infinitesimal stream line
• Means that the velocity or other
properties are uniform.
• If not, average values should be
obtained by integration, over inlet
and exit areas.

Discontinuity of pressure
• For example there should not be
any choked nozzle at the rotor
discharge.
• Assumptions (a), (b) and (c) are
mostly satisfied in most of the
applications.

From triangle 1
c  c c
2
r2
2
2
2
t2
1 2 From triangle 2
c  w   u2  ct 2 
2 2 2
r2 2
Now,
c  c  w  u  2ct 2u2  c
2
2
2
t2
2
2
2
2
2
t2
Hence, 1 2
ct 2u2   c2  u2  w2 
2 2
2
Similarly,
1 2
ct1u1   c1  u1  w1 
2 2
2
E  ct1u1  ct 2u2
Hence,
 
1 2 2
E   c1  c2    u1  u2    w2  w1 
2 2 2 2 
2  14 2 43 14 2 43 14 2 43 
 I II III 
Energy transfer in a turbo-machine
There are three terms.
c c 2 2
Term I : 1 2
2
u1  u2
2 2
Term II :
2
w2  w1
2 2
Term III :
2

• Let us understand the physical meaning of
each term.
• Consider the first term: (c12 – c22)/2
• What it means?
• It represents the energy transfer due to
change of absolute kinetic energy of the
fluid.
• This effect is also known as impulse effect.

• Since, it is concerned with the
absolute velocity, it represents a
virtual pressure rise.
• Consider a compressor
• Rotor transfers energy to fluid.
• Therefore, c2 > c1.

• The exit kinetic energy (½ c22) > inlet
kinetic energy (½ c12)
• If we bring down the velocity to close to
c1, it will result in the form of maximum
pressure rise.
• For doing so you require a system which
will convert the kinetic energy to static
pressure rise.

All compressors have either
(i) a scroll or
(ii) a diffuser or
(iii) some type of vanes.
• By decelerating the flow by any one of the
above method, theoretically it is possible to
reduce the velocity to c1 thereby obtain the
virtual pressure rise.

• Consider the second term (u12 – u22)/2.
• It represents the energy transfer due to
centrifugal effect.
• Pressure at any radius is proportional to
the product of the square of radius and the
square of the angular velocity,
w2r2 = u2.

Consider the third term
(w12 – w22)/2.
• It represents the energy transfer due
to the change of the relative kinetic
energy of the fluid.
• This is due to the reaction effect and
gives rise to static pressure rise.

In summary, in a turbo-machine it is to be
noted that
“Pressure change” is due to three
phenomena.
• Impulse phenomena (K.E.change causes
dynamic pressure change)
• Centrifugal phenomena (causes static
pressure change)
• Reaction phenomena (causes static pressure
change)
Therefore, the energy transfer is due to
stagnation or total-pressure change.
• Note that in a rotating machine all the
three phenomena need not be present.
• It may happen in some cases, only one of
them may be present.
• Also note that,
Pressure rise due to impulse effect (I term)
is outside the system and therefore called
external effect whereas centrifugal effect
and reaction effect are within the system
and therefore called the internal effect.

• The compressor and turbine can be
classified based upon
(i) the flow direction and
(ii) the degree of reaction.

• Based on the flow
direction, machines can be
divided into axial, radial or
mixed flow type.

• Axial Flow :
u1 u2 ; r2 = r1
(ii) Radial flow :
u2 > u1 ; r2 > r1
(v) Mixed flow :
neither effect is clearly seen.

Based on Degree of Reaction
What is degree of reaction?

• Definition : You can define in two ways.
• Rate of energy transfer by virtue of change
of static pressure to the total energy
transfer.
1 ( u12 − u22 ) + 1 ( w22 − w12 )
R= 2 2
E
Change of enthalpy in rotor
R=
Change of enthalpy in stage
• Stage is the combination of stator and rotor.

• Based on the above definitions the
machines can be classified as
• Impulse Machine
• Reaction machine

• Impulse machines
∀ ∆ps|rotor = 0
• Therefore, R = 0.
• In the case of a turbine of impulse
type E is due to a jet of fluid
striking the blade.
• Example is pelton wheel.
Reaction Machine
∀ ∆ps|rotor = 1
• Therefore R = 1.
• Energy transfer occurs by virtue of
change of static pressure in the
rotor.
• R = 1 for a compressor means that
the fluid enters and leaves with the
same absolute velocity.
THERMODYNAMIC
ANALYSIS

• The process of expansion and compression
taking place in a gas turbine engine will fall
into the category of steady flow process.
• Considering unit mass of the working fluid
and writing the general energy equation (Fig.
3.4), we get

• In the case of gas turbine, the rate of
flow of working fluid is quite large,
and the surface area available for
transfer of heat is quite small.
• Therefore the process may be
assumed to be adiabatic, i.e.
Q=0

The Eq.3.17 can now be written as
If Z2 Z1 as in Fig.3.4, Eq.3.18 reduces to

and if we neglect the change in kinetic energy then
W=∆h
[Suffix 0 denotes total-head or stagnation condition].
• If in Eq.3.22 or 3.23, change of enthalpy is
positive then the work input is considered positive
and the case is that of a compressor.
• If it is negative, that means the work input is
negative, i.e. there is a work output and the case is
that of a turbine.

EFFICIENCY OF
ROTATING MACHINES

• In rotating machine fluid enters at one condition,
and exits at another condition
• Therefore, losses, do occur.
• As to be expected expansion process do less
work and compression process absorb more
work.
• Therefore ‘efficiency of the component’ comes
into picture.
• This efficiency term is commonly called
isentropic efficiency of the compressor / turbine.

If Cp is constant.
If Cp is constant.
Dimensional Analysis

π One of the methods by which dimensional
analysis can be done is by means of
Buckingham pi theorem.
π pi → Π → meaning a product of
variables.
π The dimensionless groups found from the
theorem are power products denoted by Π
1, Π2, Π3 etc.

Pi Theorem
π A general theory (procedure) for combining
n dimensional variables into an equation
containing n-k dimensionless variables:
f(X1, X2, …,Xn) = 0 àF(P1, P2,…, Pn-k) = 0
where k usually equals the number of
fundamental dimensions (m) involved in
the problem.

π It has two parts.
π The first part explains what reduction
in variables can be expected.
π The second part shows how to find the pis
one at a time:

π The first part of the theorem states that
π If a physical process satisfies the Principle of
Dimensional Homogeneity (PDH) and involves n
(dimensional) variables, it can be reduced to n-k
dimensionless parameters or Π's.
π The reduction j=n-k, where k is always less than
or equal to the number of fundamental
dimensions (m) describing the variables.
π Most of the time k=m

π The second part of the theorem shows how to
find the pis one at a time:
• Find the reduction j, then select k variables
which do not form a pi among themselves
• Each desired pi group will be a power product of
these k variables plus one additional variable
which is assigned any convenient nonzero
exponent.
• Each pi group, thus, found will be independent.

π Let us take a specific example.
π Let a process involve 5 variables
v1  f  v2 , v3 , v4 , v5 
π Let these variables be expressed in terms of
three dimensions (k) viz., MLT.
π Then the number of dimensionless parameters j
will be
j= n – k = 5 – 3 = 2.
π Therefore there will be only 2 Πs
π Let us see how to proceed

π Let us pick three convenient variables.
π Note that they should not form a pi.
π Let us select the three variables v2, v3 and
v 4.
π Form two pi groups by power products.
1  M L T   v2 
0 0 0
 v3   v4   v1 
a b c
 2  M L T   v2   v3   v4   v5 
0 0 0 a b c
Each desired pi group will be a power product of these k

variables plus one additional variable which is assigned any
convenient
8 August 2006 nonzero exponent.
IC Engines Laboratory, IIT Madras 69 of 133 69
π Note that we have added v1 to Π1 and v5 to Π2
with their exponents as unity, which is done
by choosing them arbitrarily.
π Equating the dimensions we will get a unique
values of a, b and c for each pi.
π They will be independent since Π1 contains v1
and only Π2 contains v5.
π It is a very neat system once you get used to
the procedure.
π In dimensional analysis there are six
steps involved:
[1] List n variables involved in the
problem.
If you miss important variables you
will face a miserable failure.

[2] List the dimensions of each variables either in
MLTθ or FLTθ.
Table 3.1 is available for your rescue.
[3] Find the reduction number j, which is n-k.
where k usually equals the number of fundamental
dimensions involved in the problem (m).
If m are found, k = m.
If not, reduce k by one and retry.

[4] Find n – k, the number of dimensionless pi
groups needed.
[5] From the list of n dimensional variables, select
k of them to be the primary (repeating)
variables — those that will appear in more
than one pi group.
The repeating variables should contain all of
the m fundamental dimensions and should not
form a pi group among themselves.

π Add one additional variable to your k variables and
form a power product.
π Algebraically find the exponents which make the
product dimensionless.
π You must have some ingenuity.
π Try to arrange for your output or dependent variables
in the numerator.
π Do this sequentially, adding one new variable each
time.
π You will find your k pi products.
[6] Write the final dimensionless function.
π Check before declaring the pis that they are really
dimensionless.
Non-dimensional Parameters
for Rotating Machines

• Pis for rotating machines.
• In rotating machines we will be interested in
finding the outlet pressure p2.
Step 1:
• List n
• Let
p2 = f(p1, r1, D, m, N)
• How many variables are involved?
• n = 6.

Note that in this problem there are six
variables.

Step 2:
Let us now write the dimensions of
each of the variables

Step 3
• Find j.
• No variable contains the dimension Θ
• Therefore, k = 3 i.e. M L T.
• Now j = 3 and pick 3 variables.

• Note that they should not form a pi
group.
• The pi theorem guarantees for this
problem that there will be exactly
three independent dimensionless
groups.

Step 4:
• Select 3 variables.
• Let them be p1, ρ1, D.
Step 5:
• Add one additional variable to p1, ρ1
and D sequentially.

• On solving the above three simultaneous
equations, we get
a = –1; b = 0; c=0
Hence,

• On solving the above simultaneous
equations, we have

• On solving the above simultaneous
equations, we have

Step 6:
• For a given compressor and working fluid, D and

the gas constant, R, are fixed. Writing p in terms
of ρRT, the pressure ratio is given by

• Note in the above analysis we have
not considered m.
• It is because over the operating range
µ has negligible effect on the
performance.

.
ELEMENTARY AIRFOIL
THEORY

DEFINITION OF AN AIRFOIL
An airfoil may be defined as a

streamlined body bounded
principally by two flattened curves
and whose length and width are
very large in comparison with the
thickness.
Nomenclature
Airfoils have two edges.
(ii) Leading edge (thick and rounded)
(iii)Trailing edge (thin and sometimes
sharp).

Types of Airfoil

Nature of Flow
• Whenever a body moves through a fluid it
experiences certain resistance to motion.
• This is due to fluid friction on its surface.
• If the flow direction is parallel to its length
the force normal to it will be zero.
• However, when the body is inclined at an
angle it will experience a resultant force R
normal to its length.

• If the plate is inclined (at an angle i) to its
direction of flow, it will experience a resultant
force R, given by
r r r
R  LD
where L is the lift force and D is the drag force.
What is Lift?
Lift is a mechanical force generated by a solid object

moving through a fluid.
• Lift is the force that directly opposes the
weight of an airplane and holds the
airplane in the air.
• Lift is generated by every part of the
airplane, but most of the lift on a normal
airliner is generated by the wings.
• Lift is a mechanical aerodynamic force
produced by the motion of the airplane
through the air.

• Because lift is a force, it is a vector
quantity, having both a magnitude and a
direction associated with it.
• Lift acts through the center of pressure of
the object and is directed perpendicular to
the flow direction.
• There are several factors which affect the
magnitude of lift.

HOW IS LIFT GENERATED?
• There are many explanations for the generation
of lift found in encyclopedias, in basic physics
textbooks, and on Web sites.
• Unfortunately, many of the explanations are
misleading and incorrect.
• Theories on the generation of lift have become a
source of great controversy and a topic for heated
arguments.

Lift occurs when a moving flow of gas is turned
by a solid object.
The flow is turned in one direction, and the lift is
generated in the opposite direction, according to
Newton's Third Law of action and reaction.
Because air is a gas and the molecules are free to
move about, any solid surface can deflect a flow.
For an aircraft wing, both the upper and lower
surfaces contribute to the flow turning.
Neglecting the upper surface's part in turning the
flow leads to an incorrect theory of lift.

NO FLUID, NO LIFT
• Lift is a mechanical force. It is generated
by the interaction and contact of a solid
body with a fluid (liquid or gas).
• It is not generated by a force field, in the
sense of a gravitational field,or an
electromagnetic field, where one object
can affect another object without being in
physical contact.

• For lift to be generated, the solid body must be in
contact with the fluid: no fluid, no lift.
• The Space Shuttle does not experience lift from
its wings once it leaves the atmosphere.
• Space is nearly a vacuum.
• Without air, there is no lift generated by the
wings.
• Also it is made to remain in space because of
orbital mechanics related to its speed.

NO MOTION, NO LIFT
• Lift is generated by the difference in velocity
between the solid object and the fluid.
• There must be motion between the object and the
fluid: no motion, no lift.
• It makes no difference whether the object moves
through a static fluid, or the fluid moves past a
static solid object.
• Lift acts perpendicular to the motion.

What is Drag?
Drag is also a mechanical force generated by a solid

object moving through a fluid.
Drag is the aerodynamic force that
opposes an aircraft's motion through
the air.
Drag is generated by every part of the
airplane (even the engines!).
How is drag generated?

Drag is a mechanical force. It is generated by the
interaction and contact of a solid body with a
fluid (liquid or gas).
It is not generated by a force field, in the sense of
a gravitational field or an electromagnetic field,
where one object can affect another object
without being in physical contact.
For drag to be generated, the solid body must be
in contact with the fluid. If there is no fluid, there
is no drag.

Drag is generated by the difference in
velocity between the solid object and the
fluid.
There must be motion between the object
and the fluid. If there is no motion, there is
no drag.
It makes no difference whether the object
moves through a static fluid or whether the
fluid moves past a static solid object.

We can think of drag as aerodynamic
friction, and one of the sources of drag is
the skin friction between the molecules of
the air and the solid surface of the aircraft.
Because the skin friction is an interaction
between a solid and a gas, the magnitude
of the skin friction depends on properties
of both solid and gas.

The drag can be classified into
(ii) Form drag
(iii) Induced drag
(iv) Wave drag
(v) Ram drag
The sum of all four make up the total
drag force.
• The lift coefficient is a number that aerodynamicists
use to model all of the complex dependencies of
shape, inclination, and some flow conditions on lift.
• This equation is simply a rearrangement of the lift
equation where we solve for the lift coefficient in
terms of the other variables.
• The lift coefficient Cl is equal to the lift L divided
by the quantity: density r times half the velocity V
squared times the wing area A.
Cl = L / (A * .5 * r * V^2)

The drag coefficient is a number that
aerodynamicists use to model all of the
complex dependencies of shape, inclination,
and flow conditions on aircraft drag.
This equation is simply a rearrangement of
the drag equation where we solve for the drag
coefficient in terms of the other variables.

• The drag coefficient Cd is equal to the
drag D divided by the quantity: density
r times half the velocity V squared times
the reference area A.
Cd = D / (A * .5 * r * c^2)
• This equation gives us a way to
determine a value for the drag
coefficient.
• Consider the Fig.3.10.
• Note at i = 0 L = 0 but CL ≠ 0.
• L↑ upto certain angle and then decreases.
• D↑ continuously and beyond certain angle,
rate of increase is steep.
• D will be maximum at i = 900 and at this
angle L = 0.

• Application of aerofoils as already mentioned is
for
(i) Aircraft wings, and
(ii) Turbo machine blades
(axial compressors)
• In order to achieve a high lift to drag ratio the
leading edge is rounded and the blade section is
tapered towards the thin trailing edge.

• For further improvement in L/D, the blade
should be slightly cambered.

In an aerofoil there are two sides.
(i) convex at the top
(ii) concave at the bottom.
• When a fluid flows over the aerofoil fluid
particles at upper surface will experience a
centrifugal force.

• This will cause the particles to move away
from the surface.
• This will reduce the static pressure and on
this side below the free stream pressure.
• On account of this suction effect, the
convex surface on the blade is known as
the suction side.

• On the concave side the centrifugal
force presses the particles on the
surface.
• The static pressure increases
• Therefore, this side of the blade is

known as the pressure side.

• Flow on the suction side begins
accelerating
• Whereas it decelerates on the
pressure side.
• However, these two flows must
merge smoothly.

• For that, suction side starts accelerating
and the pressure side.starts decelerating.
• Note that there is a possibility that both
may not equalize.
• Therefore,
L       Forces

• Total upward force = Projected area x ∆p
between the two sides.
• Therefore, the aircraft wing has large area
available for the production of lift force.
• So that with small ∆p required L can be
achieved.

• Therefore, only a slight deflection of the
approaching flow is required over the
aircraft wings.
• This is achieved by only slightly cambered
aerofoils.

Bye until next
topic!!!

Types of Gas Turbines

Industrial Gas Turbine

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8 August 2006 IC Engines Laboratory, IIT Madras 1 of 133 1

Gas Turbine Power Plant

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• The pheripheral velocities of the blades at

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The above equation is the Euler’s energy equation.

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• If ct1 u1 > ct2 u2 then what?

Energy transfer is positive.

(ii) If ct1 u1 < ct2 u2 , then the energy

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(ii) Radial flow :

(v) Mixed flow :

neither effect is clearly seen.

What is degree of reaction?

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• Stage is the combination of stator and rotor.

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If Z2 Z1 as in Fig.3.4, Eq.3.18 reduces to

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Each desired pi group will be a power product of these k

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