Nucleic Acids

Nucleotides (DNA or RNA) Phosphodiester Bonds Base, ribose sugar, phosphate group Cytosine binds to Guanine and Thymine (Uracil) binds to Adenine Information molecules Denaturation necessary for DNA replication

Proteins
Amino Acids Peptide bond Primary (linear), secondary (alpha or beta), tertiary (folded) and quarternary structure Various functions (enzymatic, structural, antibiotic etc) Denaturation dangerous

5
Carbohydrates, Lipids, and The Plasma Membrane

5.1 What are carbohydrates?

Plants make carbohydrates through photosynthesis and store them as starch We use the energy in carbohydrates to provide energy for everything we do

5.1 What are carbohydrates?

Carbohydrates: molecules in which carbon is flanked by hydrogen and hydroxyl groups. HCOH They contain a carbonyl (-CO) group, several OH functional groups, and many high energy CH bonds. Carbohydrates have the generalized chemical formula (CH2O)n
E.g.: C6H12O6

5.1 What are carbohydrates?

Carbohydrates = sugars = saccharides

Simple sugars are called monosaccharides

Monosaccharides = monomers
Glucose, fructose, sucrose, galactose, etc.

When they link together, they are called disaccharides (2 monosaccharides) or polysaccharides (many monosaccharides)

5.1 What are carbohydrates?

Cells use glucose (monosaccharide) as an energy source.

Exists as a straight chain or ring form. Ring is more common: it is more stable.

5.1 What are carbohydrates?

Depending on the location of the aldehyde when the ring forms, the OH on carbon 1 can be above the ring (a) or below it (b)

Depending on the location of the aldehyde when the ring forms, the OH on carbon 1 can be above the ring (a) or below it (b)

a- & b- glucose are isomers of each other

5.1 What are carbohydrates?

Monosaccharides bind together to form polysaccharides in condensation reactions to form glycosidic linkages. Glycosidic linkages can be or .

5.1 What are carbohydrates?

Carbohydrates are important building blocks in the synthesis of other molecules Their secondary structures are varied & related to function
Store chemical energy: a-glucose chains Form fibrous structure: b-glucose chains

5.1 What are carbohydrates?

a-glucose chains
Simple helices (w H-bds)

1. Starch Plant Energy Storage

2. Glycogen Animal Energy Storage (liver)

Highly branched helices

Video 3.1 Carbohydrates

5.1 What are carbohydrates?

Fibrous Structure:
Highly packed

b-glucose chains

Straight chains held by many h-bonds E.g.: Cellulose, Chitin, Peptidoglycan

5.1 What are carbohydrates?

5.1 What are carbohydrates?

5.1 What are carbohydrates?

The b-glycosidic linkages of structural molecules like cellulose are difficult to hydrolyze (unlike the a-glycosidic linkages in storage polysaccharides) Animals have enzymes that can hydrolyze aglycosidic links but not b-links i.e., animals cant digest b-linkage: fiber

5.1 What are carbohydrates?

How about cows?

Which of the following is correctly matched?

A. a-glucose; 1-4 linkage; B. a-glucose; 1-6 linkage;

C. b-glucose; 1-4 linkage;

D. b-glucose; 1-6 linkage;
19

5.1 What are carbohydrates?

Carbohydrates are used to store energy because they contain reduced carbon atoms (C-H) These bonds have high free energy because electrons are shared equally by atoms with low electronegativity. Carbs are used as our primary energy source because the energy they contain can be released quickly and efficiently.

5.2 What Structures and Functions of Lipids?

Lipids are: Fats and oilsenergy storage Steroids

Phospholipidscell membranes

5.2 What Structures and Functions of Lipids?

Consist of long chains of hydrocarbons (C-H)
Non-polar insoluble in water Basic unit is the fatty acid A fatty acid is a hydrocarbon chain (fatty) bonded to a carboxyl group (COOH: carboxylic acid)

5.2 What

Structures and Functions of Lipids?

Fats and oils are triglyceridessimple lipidsmade of three fatty acids and 1 glycerol. Glycerol: 3 OH groupsan alcohol

Fatty acid: nonpolar hydrocarbon with a polar carboxyl groupcarboxyl bonds with hydroxyls of glycerol in an ester linkage.

Figure 3.18 Synthesis of a Triglyceride

5.2 What

Structures and Functions of Lipids?

Saturated fatty acids: no double bonds between carbonsit is saturated with hydrogen atoms (max # of Hs per C). Unsaturated fatty acids: some double bonds in carbon chain. monounsaturated: one double bond

polyunsaturated: more than one

Figure 3.19 Saturated and Unsaturated Fatty Acids

5.2 What

Structures and Functions of Lipids?

Saturated: Animal fats Solid at Room Temperature

Unsaturated: Plant fats Liquid at Room Temperature

5.2 What

Structures and Functions of Lipids?

Trans fat: Unsaturated fat made of fatty acids containing trans isomers
Trans fats are the result of the process of partial hydrogenation of plant oils Can be monounsaturated or polyunsaturated
Saturated fat Cis-unsaturated fatty acid Trans-unsaturated fatty acid

5.2 What

Structures and Functions of Lipids?

Trans fats behave like saturated fats: They stay solid at room temperature

Compare to cis-unsaturated fat:

5.2 What

Structures and Functions of Lipids?

Steroids are lipid molecules containing a complex of four carbon rings Very important in structure of cell membranes & hormones determining sexual characteristics.

5.2 What

Structures and Functions of Lipids?

Phospholipids: fatty acids bound to glycerol, a phosphate group replaces one fatty acid.

Phosphate group is hydrophilicthe head

Tails are fatty acid chainshydrophobic

Phospholipids are amphipathic: they have a hydrophilic and a hydrophobic end

Figure 3.20 Phospholipids (A)

5.2 What

Structures and Functions of Lipids?

Hydrophobic parts of phospholipids try to avoid water as much as possible

Which of the following is classified as a lipid, but has a substantially different chemical structure than the others?

A. Cholesterol B. The phospholipids of a membrane C. Oil from a corn plant D. The fat in dairy products

5.3 Cell

Membranes

Cell membranes are made of phospholipids They are amphipathic They are semi-permeable
They let some things through easily and keep other things out

5.3 Cell

Membranes

Size and charge affect speed of diffusion

5.3 Cell

Membranes

5.3 Cell

Membranes

The general structure of membranes is know as the fluid mosaic model. The phospholipid bilayer is like a lake in which a variety of proteins float.

Fluid mosaic model

40

Whats in the membrane?

41

Membrane Cholesterol
In plasma membranes, cholesterol fills spaces between phospholipids Polar head of cholesterol is aligned with polar head of phospholipids

5.3 Cell

Membranes

Cholesterol restrains phospholipids movement membrane less fluid, less permeable Temperature reduces movement of molecules phospholipids packed tighter, membrane less permeable

5.3 Cell

Membranes

Membranes contain proteins: number of proteins varies with cell function Some membrane proteins extend across the lipid bilayer with hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions or domains (i.e., the proteins are also amphipathic).

Figure 5.4 Interactions of Integral Membrane Proteins

5.3 Cell

Membranes

Two types of membrane proteins:

Integral membrane proteins span the bilayer, hydrophilic ends protrude on either side Peripheral membrane proteins do not penetrate the bilayer

5.3 Cell

Membranes

Membranes are dynamic constantly forming, transforming, fusing, and breaking down.

Final Project

5
Inside the Cell

7.1 Cells are the Fundamental Unit of Life

Cell theory was the first unifying theory of biology. Cells are the fundamental units of life. All organisms are composed of cells. All cells come from preexisting cells.

7.1 Cells are the Fundamental Unit of Life

Implications of cell theory: Life is continuous Origin of life was the origin of cells

Functions of all cells are similar

7.1 Cells are the Fundamental Unit of Life

Cells are small. Why? Cells are small because they need a high surface area-to-volume ratio.

Volume determines the amount of chemical activity in the cell per unit time.
Surface area determines the amount of substances that can pass the cell boundary per unit time.

7.1 Cells are the Fundamental Unit of Life

Two types of cells:

Prokaryotic: Bacteria and Archaea

Eukaryotic: Cells with DNA in a membraneenclosed compartment called the nucleus.

7.2 What Are the Characteristics of Prokaryotic Cells?

Prokaryotic cells of bacteria and archaea are smaller and simpler than eukaryotic cells

Prokaryotic cell:
Cell wall made of peptidoglycan, plasma membrane, protein capsule

Cytoplasm containing ribosomes

No nucleus DNA loose in nucleoid region Cytoskeleton Pili and fimbriae

Flagella

7.2 What Are the Characteristics of Prokaryotic Cells?

Some prokaryotes swim by means of flagella, made of the protein flagellin.

Some bacteria have pili hair-like structures projecting from the surface. They help bacteria adhere to other cells and exchange DNA through conjugation

7.3 What Are the Characteristics of Eukaryotic Cells?

Eukaryotic cells are up to 10 times larger than prokaryotes. Eukaryotic cells have membrane-enclosed compartments called organelles. Organelles have specific functions.

Compartmentalization allowed eukaryotic cells to specializeforming tissues and organs into multicellular organisms.

Figure 4.7 Eukaryotic CellsAnimal Cells (Part 1)

Cell Factory
DNA Replication Nucleus
(RNA)

Nucleolus

Ribosomes

DNA
Transcription

Proteins

Cytosol Mitochondria

Rough ER

RNA
Translation Cell Membrane

Smooth ER

Golgi

Lysosome

Protein

58

What path does a protein in the secretory pathway take, starting from the site of its synthesis?
A. Rough ER, Golgi apparatus, secretory vesicles, plasma membrane B. Golgi apparatus, rough ER, secretory vesicles, plasma membrane C. Plasma membrane, secretory vesicles, Golgi apparatus, rough ER D. Rough ER, secretory vesicles, Golgi apparatus, plasma membrane

What path does a protein in the secretory pathway take, starting from the site of its synthesis?
A. Rough ER, Golgi apparatus, secretory vesicles, plasma membrane B. Golgi apparatus, rough ER, secretory vesicles, plasma membrane C. Plasma membrane, secretory vesicles, Golgi apparatus, rough ER D. Rough ER, secretory vesicles, Golgi apparatus, plasma membrane

Figure 4.7 Eukaryotic CellsAnimal Cells (Part 2)

Ribosomessites of protein synthesis. Occur in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.

In eukaryotes, ribosomes are free in the cytoplasm, attached to the endoplasmic reticulum, or inside mitochondria and chloroplasts.

Figure 4.11 The Golgi Apparatus (Part 2)

7.3 What Are the Characteristics of Eukaryotic Cells?

Chloroplasts:

Site of photosynthesis light energy is converted to the energy of chemical bonds. Chloroplasts have a double membrane.

7.3 What Are the Characteristics of Eukaryotic Cells?

Plant and protist cells have vacuoles: Store waste products and toxic compoundsmay deter herbivores Provide structure for plant cells: turgor

7.3 What Are the Characteristics of Eukaryotic Cells?

Fungi, algae, and plants have a stiff outer cell wall that protects the cell. It brings solidity & turgidity to the cell.
Note: this is different from the cell membrane. Cell walls do not usually play a role in regulating transport in or out of a cell Question: what monomer is the cell wall made of in plants?

7.3 What Are the Characteristics of Eukaryotic Cells?

Centrioles are made of microtubules.

Involved in formation of the mitotic spindle pull chromosomes apart during cell division

Oxygen is essential for which of the following processes to occur?

A. Chloroplasts to convert sunlights kinetic energy into chemical potential energy B. Lysosomes to digest a proteins into their component amino acids C. Mitochondria to use the chemical potential energy in glucose to form ATP molecules D. Centrosomes to pull a cells duplicated chromosomes apart during cell division

Oxygen is essential for which of the following processes to occur?

A. Chloroplasts to convert sunlights kinetic energy into chemical potential energy B. Lysosomes to digest a proteins into their component amino acids C. Mitochondria to use the chemical potential energy in glucose to form ATP molecules D. Centrosomes to pull a cells duplicated chromosomes apart during cell division

7.4 How Do Large Molecules Enter and Leave a Cell?

Macromolecules (proteins, polysaccharides, nucleic acids) are too large to cross the membrane.
They can be taken in or excreted by means of vesicles through endocytosis (in) or exocytosis (out).

7.4 How Do Large Molecules Enter and Leave a Cell?

Phagocytosis: molecules or entire cells are engulfed. Some protists feed in this way. Some white blood cells engulf foreign substances.

A food vacuole or a phagosome forms, which fuses with a lysosome.

7.4 How Do Large Molecules Enter and Leave a Cell?

Pinocytosis: a vesicle forms to bring small dissolved substances or fluids into a cell. Vesicles much smaller than in phagocytosis.

Pinocytosis is constant in endothelial (capillary) cells.

7.4 How Do Large Molecules Enter and Leave a Cell?

Receptor mediated endocytosis highly specific Depends on receptor proteins integral membrane proteins to bind to specific substances Sites are called coated pits coated with other proteins such as clathrin