Autonomous

Robotics

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Difference b/w Machine
and Robots

Reach
it

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 Basics of mobile robot

• Sensory devices for direction and

feedback
• Sensor data processing unit
• Actuators
• Locomotion system
• Control system for making decisions
• Power supply

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 Some Most Common
Sensors
Touch Sensor and IR Sensor

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 Touch Sensors

One of the most simple ones---just a switch

electrical flow

force voltage
measurement

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 IR Sensor

This Consists of IR LED, IR sensor and a

variable resistance (preset).
The LED continuously emits and when any
obstacle comes in front, the intensity is
increased at the sensors, hence changing
their state from OFF to ON.
The range of these LEDs can be changed
using the preset (changing threshold).

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 Light Sensor – Photo
Diode

This consists of a
photodiode which
light energy

allows current voltage

measurement

through it, low

exponentially light
proportional to light light energy

absorbed by it, voltage

measurement

exactly like a valve.

It may or may not bright light electrical flow
require an LED. © NIST ROBOTICS CLUB
 Light Sensors – LDR

• LDRs are light dependent resistances

• Two circuits are possible as shown and
the formula for them is

Rvariable

Rvariable

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 Actuators

• Wordweb:A mechanism that puts

something into automatic action.
• They convert electrical energy into
mechanical energy.
• Motors provide rotational motion
• Electromagnet provides linear motion

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 Types of Motors
• DC motors :Extensively used, all purpose
ones, driven by dc power supply
• AC motor : not used in robotics, driven by
ac power
• Stepper motor: extensively used in
robotics where controlled rotation is
required
• Servo motor: geared dc motor with inbuilt
feedback and error compensation
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 DC Motor

• Operates with dc
voltage
• Can run in both
directions
• Speed control

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 Working of a DC Motor

1. Direction of motion is controlled by polarity of voltage

or direction of current

2. Speed is controlled by changing the average power

(energy) fed to the DC motor
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 DC motor continued…

• DC motors are high speed and low torque

devices
• Gears are used to decrease the speed and
increase the torque
• They give a smooth shaft movement
• Easy to operate

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 DC motor drivers

• Drivers are current amplifier circuits

• A low current control signal is converted
into a proportionally higher current signal
that can drive a motor

But How????
Power Transistors---Those which
can handle current of the order of Amps
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Switching circuit

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H-bridge working

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Electronic direction
control

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H-Bridge working

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Actual Circuit

When both the points A & B are "HIGH" Q1

and Q2 are in saturation. Hence the bases of Q3
to Q6 are grounded. Hence Q3,Q5 are OFF and
Q4,Q6 are ON . The voltages at both the motor
terminals is same, so the motor is OFF.
Similarly when both A and B are "LOW" the
motor is OFF. When A is HIGH and B is LOW,
Q1 saturates ,Q2 is OFF. The bases of Q3 and
Q4 are grounded and that of Q4 and Q5 are
HIGH.
Therefore Q4 and Q5 conduct making the right
terminal of the motor more positive than the left
and the motor is ON. When A is LOW and B is
HIGH ,the left terminal of the motor is more
positive than the right and the motor rotates in the
reverse direction. You can use only the
SL/SK100s ,but BC148 used have a very low
hFE ~70 and they would enter the active region
for 3V(2.9V was what I got from the computer
for a HIGH) . You can ditch the BC148 if you
have a SL/SK100 with a decent value of hFE
( like 150).The diodes protect the transistors from
surge produced due to the sudden reversal of the
motor. The approx. cost of the circuit without the
motor is around Rs.40.

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 DC motor Speed control
circuit

• Input: Operating voltage and control signal

• Output: Part of operating voltage according
to control signal:
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 DC Motor speed control
continued.
• Voltage across the terminal of Motor can
be changed by passing current through a
variable resistor. But it is extremely
energy
inefficient
• A reduced average voltage is supplied to
the motor by a technique called PWM

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 PWM

• Pulse width modulation

• PWM is a technique to generate waveform
of different duty cycles depending upon
an input control voltage
• After feeding voltage waveform and
changing its duty cycle ,speed can be
controlled.

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Duty cycle

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 Duty cycle
continue..
• Time period (T): duration after which the
voltage waveform repeats itself
• Duty cycle: % time of T when the voltage
is equal to operating voltage
• Average voltage:=
Duty cycle x operating voltage
-------------------------------------
100

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 PWM generation

• Timer IC 555 is used for generation of

waveform
• Pin outs

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Circuit for PWM
generation

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Both speed and
direction control

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L293D Quad Half H-
Bridge

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Pin outs of L293D

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 Stepper Motor

Widely use in Robotics ---why??

Because it is more precise than DC
motor
Measured rotation and can be held at
a particular position
Alignation is much better in a
differential drive
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Stepper motor
continue………

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 Types of Stepper

• Mainly of two types

• Unipolar motor: the current only flows in one
direction in the windings of the coils. i.e. the
stator poles can only be polarized one way.

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 Continued……….

Bipolar motor: the current flows in both

direction in the windings of the coils.
i.e. the stator poles can be polarized
both way.

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 Comparison

• Unipolar • Bipolar

Current flow in one Current flow in both

direction direction

Complicated drive Circuit

Simple drive circuit
High Torque
Less torque
Not Smooth
Smooth drive

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 Unipolar Stepper
Motor
• This kind of motor has four coils .
• When energized in the correct sequence, it
causes the permanent magnet attached to the
shaft to rotate.
• There are 4 basic step sequences. After step 4,
the sequence is repeated from step 1 again.
• Reversing the order of the steps in a sequence
will reverse the direction of rotation.

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 Single coil
excitation

0010

0100

0001

1000
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a. Single-Coil
Excitation - Each
successive coil is
energized in turn.

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 Double coil Excitation
0011 0110 1100
1001

Note:
The excitation of Coil 4 is always the inverse of the excitation of Coil 2.
The excitation of Coil 1 is always the inverse of the excitation of Coil 3.
So, with the right circuit, you can generate this sequence with only two
data lines.
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b. Two-Coil Excitation - Each
successive pair of adjacent
coils is energized in turn.

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Interleaving the two
sequences will cause
the motor to half-step

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 Single and Double coil
Excitation
1000 1100 0100 0110 0010
0011 0001 1001

0100 0011

0010
1001

1000 0110

1100 0100
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 Comparison

• Single coil • Double coil

• Low torque • High torque

• Consume less energy • Consume double

energy
• Settling time is more • Settling time is less

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Circuit Diagram

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The Coil Diagram

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 Connections

Data
Motor 1
Port1

Data Motor 2
Port2

Note –connect a 15v zener diode to pin 10 of IC as shown to prevent damage

to the IC due to "back emf" when loads such as motors switch on and off © NIST ROBOTICS CLUB
25-way Female D-
Type Connector

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 PC parallel Port

• The PC's Parallel Printer Port has a total of

12 digital outputs and 5 digital inputs accessed
via 3 consecutive 8-bit ports in the processor's
I/O space.
• 8 output pins accessed via the DATA Port
• 5 input pins (one inverted) accessed via the
STATUS Port
• 4 output pins (three inverted) accessed via the
CONTROL Port
• The remaining 8 pins are grounded
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