Image log & dipmeter analysis course Sedimentological interpretation of carbonates

Carbonate sedimentology/

Carbonates versus clastics

Interpretation techniques applied to clastic reservoirs can also be applied to carbonate depositional systems. Carbonates however, differ from clastics due to the importance of biogenic processes and their susceptibility to diagenetic modifications.

Carbonate sedimentology/

Depositional environments
Tidal flats Mud

Shelf
Oolite sand bodies

Skeletal sand Skeletal pellet mud Patch reefs

Slope

Shoreline Shelf
Lagoon

Basin
Pelagic ooze

Shelf marginal reef

Tucker (1985)

Shelf marginal reef

Re-sedimented carbonates

Carbonate sedimentology/

Carbonate grain types

Carbonate sedimentology/

Carbonate classification

Dunham (1962)

Carbonate sedimentology/

Carbonate classification

Folk (1962)

Carbonate sedimentology/

Image facies scheme

Qualifiers: v = vuggy c = cemented

Carbonate sedimentology/

Sedimentary structures
All primary sedimentary structures recognised in siliciclastic rocks can occur in carbonates (e.g. cross-bedding in ooid shoals, slumps etc.) In addition there may be: Biogenic structures (reefs etc.) Diagenetic structures unique to carbonates

Carbonate sedimentology/

Sedimentary structures

Carbonate sedimentology/

Sedimentary structures

Cross-stratification

Carbonate sedimentology/1

Biogenic structures
Algal structures Algal laminites, birds eye/fenestrae, stromatolites etc. Bioturbation Reef Irregular fabrics, could be confused with vuggy horizons, conglomeratic facies etc.

Carbonate sedimentology/1

Biogenic structures
Arenicolites Thalassinoides
Asterosoma

Skolithos
Conostichus

Teichichnus Rhizocorallium Terebellina

Diplocraterion
Chondrites

Ophiomorpha Rosselia
Palaeophycus Modified from Pemberton et al. (1992)

Carbonate sedimentology/1

Diagenetic structures
Vugs and moulds, in extreme cases karstification Karstic fissures, breccias and caverns Hardgrounds Nodules, nodular bedding Stylolites and stylobedding Metastable aragonite and high Mg-calcite highly susceptible to diagenetic modification

Carbonate sedimentology/1

Diagenetic modification
Submarine lithification and marine cementation Facies controls Dolomitisation

Karstification Meteoric cementation

Mixing-zone dissolution

Overpressuring and hydrocarbon emplacement Burial cementation

Fracture porosity

Dolomitisation & cementation

Stylolitisation

Carbonate sedimentology/1

Diagenetic structures

Dolomitisation

Carbonate sedimentology/1

Controls on image log response in carbonates

Need to preserve resistivity or acoustic contrasts:
Porous vs. non-porous foresets in cross-bedded ooid shoals Grainstone turbidites in deep water pelagic carbonates Clay lenses/organic rich partings in algal laminites

Variations in physical roughness of the borehole wall etc. related to primary fabric Differential cementation/replacement may facilitate imaging, but Large-scale diagenetic replacement/cementation may result in homogeneous response.

Carbonate sedimentology/1

Carbonate textures and structures - dissolution

Vertical well

Argillaceous dissolution seams Resistive, cemented wackestones

Conductive patches represent mouldic porosity after rudists

Sharp irregular base to rudist grainstone

Carbonate sedimentology/1

Carbonate textures and structures - porosity

Vertical well
Resistive base to overlying succession Well bedded interval More conductive patches represent vuggy porosity associated with high permeability zone Resistive base to succession with conductive patches - probably represents poorly interconnected vuggy porosity STATIC DYNAMIC

Carbonate sedimentology/1

Carbonate textures and structures - laminae

Vertical well
STATIC DYNAMIC

Well laminated horizon

Alternating relatively resistive and conductive horizons corresponding to fining-upward units. Conductive horizons are the coarser, more porous packstonegrainstone facies. Resistive horizons are finer grained packstone to wackestone facies.

Carbonate sedimentology/1

Carbonate textures and structures intense stylolitisation

Vertical well

Intensely stylolitised wackestones

Carbonate sedimentology/2

Carbonate textures and structures cross-bedding

Vertical well

High angle bedding, possible crossstratification.

Conductive coarser, more porous packstonegrainstone facies.

Carbonate sedimentology/2

Carbonate textures and structures - bioturbation

Vertical well
Burrowed bed contact. Hardground and major unconformity surface. Elevated resistivity response possibly due to cementation associated with unconformity development. Large sub-vertical burrow shafts. Possible burrow gallery.

Carbonate sedimentology/2

Carbonate textures and structures - stylolites

Vertical well

Large amplitude stylolite with resistive halo

Stylolitisation

Carbonate sedimentology/2

Carbonate textures and structures - slumps

Vertical well

Preferred orientation of resistive patches, possibly bioclasts.

Large scale slump features

Carbonate sedimentology/2

Carbonate textures and structures - stylolites

Horizontal well
Abundant conductive/resistive fractures

Stylolitic bed boundary

Abundant conductive/resistive fractures

Carbonate sedimentology/2

Carbonate textures and structures - stylolites

Horizontal well

Abundant conductive/resistive fractures

Stylolitic bed boundary

Carbonate sedimentology/2

Carbonate textures and structures - stylolites

Horizontal well

Conductive fracture Stylolitic bed boundary

Large, scattered angular-subangular resistive patches. Possibly large bioclasts.

Carbonate sedimentology/2

Carbonate textures and structures - bioclasts

Horizontal well

Abundant dark conductive patches interpreted as vuggy porosity. There is likely to be good connectivity in this example. The bright, resistive patches are probably bioclasts.

Carbonate sedimentology/2

Carbonate textures and structures - vugs

Resistivity Image Acoustic Image

Vuggy porosity

Vertical well

Carbonate sedimentology/2

Carbonate textures and structures

Transition from bedding (orange) to oversteepened bedding (brown) across a faulted (magenta) interval. Conductive fractures (cyan) are also observed.

Carbonate sedimentology/3

Chalk textures and structures

Ekofisk Formation Marl/Laminated Marl - Laminated Marl - Laminated Mottled, bioturbated marl Debris Flow
Conductive mottling

Slumped/Debris Flow

Slumped

Slump fold Top Porous Chalk Minor healed fractures mottled fabric

Silic. Tight Zone

Laminated/Debris Flow
Laminations

Transported

Hardground

Tor Formation

Chert Bands Base Ekofisk

minor cemented fault Debris flow clasts heavily mottled fabric of indeterminate transported chalk facies

Base Tor Hardground

Lower Cretaceous

Carbonate sedimentology/3

Porosity classification

After Nurmi et al. 1990

Carbonate sedimentology/3

Carbonate textures and structures

Carbonate sedimentology/3

Facies interpretation
CORE IS ESSENTIAL TO CALIBRATE BOREHOLE IMAGE FACIES IN CARBONATES Open hole log response should be used to determine lithology and porosity Image fabrics should be used carefully: the same fabric may be caused by more than one process

Carbonate sedimentology/3

Common facies types

Textural types
Lime mudstones Wackestones Packstones Grainstones Boundstones
- Framestone - Bindstone - Bafflestone

Structure/Fabric
Laminated Bioturbated Rippled Cross bedded Stromatolitic Fenestral

Grain types
Algal Spiculites Skeletal
- Infauna - Epifauna

Ooids Lithoclasts
- Siliciclastic - Carbonate

Breccias Recrystallised

Peloids/Pellets Oncoidal

Carbonate sedimentology/3

Carbonate lithofacies
Vertical well Stacked fining-upward units with packstonegrainstone bases and wackestone tops
Resistive fracture Resistive, mottled wackestones Conductive packstonesgrainstones
GR NPHI RHOB

Static

Dynamic

Core

Carbonate sedimentology/3

Carbonate lithofacies core calibration

Vertical well
Static image Dynamic image Slabbed core

FMIF7

FMIF4

Boundary between FMI facies FMI7 and FMI4. The burrowed surface is clearly visible (arrowed) as are the packstone-filled burrows below.

Burrowed contact (dashed line) between FMIF7 and FMIF4. Burrows (squares) are filled with packstone. Possible hardground.

Carbonate sedimentology/3

Carbonate lithofacies core calibration

Vertical well
Static image Dynamic image Slabbed core
FMIF2

FMIF11

FMIF2

Thin, very resistive horizon (FMIF11) corresponding to a subtle lithological change in a mudstone-wackestone succession (FMIF2). The resistivity contrast may be due to differential cementation.

Thin mudstone unit with matrix-supported intraclasts (possible debris deposit) within a mudstone-wackestone succession

Carbonate sedimentology/3

Carbonate lithofacies
FMI image facies associations vs Ka
FMI image facies association
0 1000.00 100.00 1 2 3 4 5 6

Ka (mD)

FMIA1
10.00 1.00 0.10 0.01

FMIA2 FMIA3 FMIA4 FMIA5

Carbonate sedimentology/3

Fractures in carbonates
Fractures occur in carbonates in the same manner as in clastics. However tension gashes associated with stylolite bands are a common feature in carbonates. The interpretation techniques used for clastic sediment fractures are applied to carbonate fractures.

Carbonate sedimentology/4

Fractures in carbonates
Vertical well

Conductive fracture

Resistive fracture

Carbonate sedimentology/4

Fractures in carbonates
Vertical well

Fractures Bedding

Carbonate sedimentology/4

The ultimate goal

Carbonate sedimentology/4