Wave Properties of Particles

Serway/Jewett chapters 38.5; 40.4 40.7

Photons and Waves Revisited
Some experiments are best explained by
the photon model
Some are best explained by the wave
model
We must accept both models and admit that
the true nature of light is not describable in
terms of any single classical model
The particle and wave models complement
one another
Dual Nature of EM radiation
To explain all experiments with EM radiation
(light), one must assume that light can be
described both as wave (Interference, Diffraction)
and particles (Photoelectric Effect, Frank-Hertz
Experiment, x-ray production, x-ray scattering
from electron)
To observe wave properties must make
observations using devices with dimensions
comparable to the wavelength.
For instance, wave properties of X-rays were observed
in diffraction from arrays of atoms in solids spaced by a
few Angstroms
Louis de Broglie
1892 1987
French physicist
Originally studied
history
Was awarded the
Nobel Prize in 1929
for his prediction of
the wave nature of
electrons
De Broglies Hypothesis
Louis de Broglie postulated that the dual
nature of the light must be expanded to
ALL matter
In other words, all material particles possess
wave-like properties, characterized by the
wavelength,
B
, related to the momentum p of
the particle in the same way as for light
p
h
B
=
de Broglie
wavelength of the
particle
Plancks Constant


Momentum of the
particle
Wave Properties of Particles
Louis de Broglie postulated that because photons have
both wave and particle characteristics, so too all forms of
matter have both properties
For photons:





De Broglie hypothesized that particles of well defined
momentum also have a wavelength, as given above, the
de Broglie wavelength
p
h
Or
h
c
h
c
E
p
h E
=
= = =
=

v
v
,
Frequency of a Particle
In an analogy with photons, de Broglie
postulated that a particle would also have a
frequency associated with it


These equations present the dual nature of
matter
Particle nature, p and E
Wave nature, and (e and k)
e t
t
= = = = f
h
hf E
h
E
f 2
2
De Broglies Hypothesis
De Broglies waves are not EM waves
He called them pilot or material waves

B
depends on the momentum and not on
physical size of the particle
For a non-relativistic free particle:
Momentum is p = mv, here v is the speed of the particle
For free particle total energy, E, is kinetic energy
Em
h
mv
h
p
h
B
2
= = =
2 2
2 2
mv
m
p
K E = = =
Photons and Waves Revisited
Some experiments are best explained by
the photon model
Some are best explained by the wave
model
We must accept both models and admit
that the true nature of light is not
describable in terms of any single classical
model
Also, the particle model and the wave
model of light complement each other
Complementarity
The principle of complementarity states
that the wave and particle models of either
matter or radiation complement each other
Neither model can be used exclusively to
describe matter or radiation adequately
No measurements can simultaneously
reveal the particle and the wave properties
of matter
The Principle of Complementarity
and the Bohr Atom
How can we understand electron orbits in
hydrogen atom from wave nature of the electron?
Remember: An electron can take only certain
orbits: those for which the angular momentum, L,
takes on discrete values



How does this relate to the electrons de
Broglies wavelength?
n mvr L = =
The Principle of Complementarity
Only those orbits are allowed,
which can fit an integer
(discrete) number of the electrons
de Broglies wavelength
Thus, one can replace 3
rd
Bohrs
postulate with the postulate
demanding that the allowed orbits
fit an integer number of the
electrons de Broglies wavelength
This is analogous to the standing
wave condition for modes in
musical instruments
B
B
B
B
B
n r
n
h
n
r
h
mv
mv
h
p
h
n mvr L
t
t

=
= =
=
= =
= =
2
2

B
n r t = 2
De Broglies Hypothesis predicts
that one should see diffraction
and interference of matter waves
For example we should observe
Electron diffraction
Atom or molecule diffraction

Estimates for De Broglie wavelength
Bullet:
m = 0.1 kg; v = 1000 m/s
B
~ 6.6310
-36
m
Electron at 4.9 V potential:
m = 9.1110
-31
kg;
E~4.9 eV
B
~ 5.510
-10
m = 5.5
Nitrogen Molecule at Room Temperature:
m ~ 4.210
-26
kg;
E = (3/2)k
B
T ~ 0.0375 eV
B
~2.810
-11
m = 0.28
Rubidium (87) atom at 50 nK:

B
~ 1.210
-6
m = 1.2 mm = 1200
mE
h
mv
h
p
h
B
2
= = =
Diffraction of X-Rays by Crystals
X-rays are electromagnetic waves of relatively short
wavelength ( = 10
-8
to 10
-12
m = 100 0.01 )
Max von Laue suggested that the regular array of
atoms in a crystal (spacing in order of several
Angstroms) could act as a three-dimensional
diffraction grating for x-rays
X-ray Diffraction Pattern
X-Ray Diffraction
This is a two-dimensional
description of the
reflection (diffraction) of
the x-ray beams
The condition for
constructive interference is


where n = 1, 2, 3
u n d = sin 2
This condition is
known as Braggs law
This can also be used
to calculate the spacing
between atomic planes
Davisson-Germer Experiment
If particles have a wave nature, then under
appropriate conditions, they should exhibit
diffraction
Davisson and Germer measured the
wavelength of electrons
This provided experimental confirmation of
the matter waves proposed by de Broglie
Davisson and Germer Experiment
Electrons were directed
onto nickel crystals
Accelerating voltage is
used to control electron
energy: E = |e|V
The scattering angle
and intensity (electron
current) are detected
is the scattering angle

Davisson and Germer Experiment
If electrons are just particles, we expect a smooth
monotonic dependence of scattered intensity on
angle and voltage because only elastic collisions are
involved
Diffraction pattern similar to X-rays would be
observed if electrons behave as waves
Davisson and Germer Experiment
Davisson and Germer Experiment
Observations:
Intensity was stronger
for certain angles for
specific accelerating
voltages (i.e. for specific
electron energies)
Electrons were reflected
in almost the same way
that X-rays of
comparable wavelength
Davisson and Germer Experiment
Observations:
Current vs accelerating
voltage has a maximum,
i.e. the highest number
of electrons is scattered
in a specific direction
This cant be explained
by particle-like nature of
electrons electrons
scattered on crystals
behave as waves
For ~ 50 the maximum is at ~54V
Davisson and Germer Experiment
For X-ray Diffraction on Nickel







50 65
A 65 . 1 ; A 91 . 0
sin 2
o
ray - X
o
111
= =

= =
=
> <
| u

u
d
d
Davisson and Germer Experiment
(Problem 40.38) Assuming the wave nature
of electrons we can use de Broglies
approach to calculate wavelengths of a
matter wave corresponding to electrons in
this experiment
V = 54 V E = 54 eV = 8.6410
-18
J

A 67 . 1
J 10 6 . 8 kg 10 1 . 9 2
sec - J 10 63 . 6
2
, 2 ,
2
18 31
34
2
=


=
= = =

B
B
mE
h
mE p
m
p
E

This is in excellent agreement with wavelengths of

X-rays diffracted from Nickel!
In previous experiments many electrons
were diffracted
Will one get the same result for a single
electron?
Such experiment was performed in 1949
Intensity of the electron beam was so low that
only one electron at a time collided with
metal
Still diffraction pattern, and not diffuse
scattering, was observed, confirming that
Thus individual electrons behave as waves
Single Electron Diffraction
Two-slit Interference
Thomas Young
The intensity is obtained by
squaring the wave,
I
1
~ <h
1
2
>, I
2
~ <h
2
2
>,
I
1
2
= <(h
1
+ h
2
)
2
> = <h
1
2
+h
2
2
+ 2h
1
h
2
>,
where < > is average over time of
the oscillating wave.
h
1
h
2
~ cos(2tp/) and reflects the
interference between waves
reaching the point from the two
slits.
When the waves arriving from
slits 1 and 2 are in phase, p = n,
and cos(2tp/) = 1.
For <I
1
> = <I
2
>, I
1
2
= 4I
1
.
When the waves from slits 1 and 2
are out of phase, o = n + /2, and
cos(2to/) = -1 and I
1
2
= 0.
Electron Diffraction, Set-Up
Electron Diffraction, Experiment
Parallel beams of mono-energetic
electrons that are incident on a double slit
The slit widths are small compared to the
electron wavelength
An electron detector is positioned far from
the slits at a distance much greater than
the slit separation
Electron Diffraction, cont.
If the detector collects
electrons for a long
enough time, a typical
wave interference
pattern is produced
This is distinct evidence
that electrons are
interfering, a wave-like
behavior
The interference pattern
becomes clearer as the
number of electrons
reaching the screen
increases
Active Figure 40.22
Use the active figure
to observe the
development of the
interference pattern
Observe the
destruction of the
pattern when you
keep track of which
slit an electron goes
through
PLAY
ACTIVE FIGURE
Electron Diffraction, Equations
A maximum occurs when
This is the same equation that was used for
light
This shows the dual nature of the electron
The electrons are detected as particles at a
localized spot at some instant of time
The probability of arrival at that spot is
determined by calculating the amplitude
squared of the sum of all waves arriving at a
point
sin d m =
Electron Diffraction Explained
An electron interacts with both slits
simultaneously
If an attempt is made to determine
experimentally through which slit the electron
goes, the act of measuring destroys the
interference pattern
It is impossible to determine which slit the
electron goes through
In effect, the electron goes through both slits
The wave components of the electron are
present at both slits at the same time
Neutrons He atoms
C
60
molecules
Other experiments showed wave nature for
neutrons, and even big molecules, which
are much heavier than electrons!!
Example of Electron Diffraction
Electrons from a hot filament are incident upon a crystal at an angle = 30
from the normal (the line drawn perpendicular) to the crystal surface. An
electron detector is place at an angle = 30 from the normal. Atomic
layers parallel to the sample surface are spaced by d = 1.3 A.
Through what voltage V must the electron be accelerated for a maximum in
the electron signal on the detector?
Will the electrons scatter at other angle?
Phase Speed
Phase velocity is the speed with which wave
crest advances:
x
t
k k T
v t kx A
phase
, coordinate of t coefficien
time, of t coefficien
2
2
: ) cos( = = = = =
e
t
e t
v

e
Addition of Two Waves
)
2
sin( )
2
cos( 2 ) sin( ) sin( ) , (

e

e e + = + + = t kx A t kx A t kx A t x y
t kx A t kx A t kx A t x y e e e cos sin 2 ) sin( ) sin( ) , ( = + + =
Two sine waves traveling in the same direction:
Constructive and Destructive Interference
Two sine waves traveling in opposite directions create a standing wave
Two sine waves with different frequencies: Beats
]
2
(
2
(
sin[ ] ) 2 / ( ) 2 / cos[( 2
]
2
(
2
(
sin[ ]
2
(
2
(
cos[ 2
) sin( ) sin( ) , (
) 2 1 ) 2 1
) 2 1 ) 2 1 ) 2 1 ) 2 1
2 2 1 1
t x
k k
t x k A
t x
k k
t x
k k
A
t x k A t x k A t x y
e e
e
e e e e
e e
+

+
A A =
+

=
+ =
Beat Notes and Group Velocity, v
g

This represents a beat note with the amplitude of the beat moving at speed
dk
d
v
v k v
g
g
e
e e
=
A A = A A =
: waves of on distributi continuous of ion superposit For
/ ) 2 / /( ) 2 / (
]
2
(
2
(
sin[ ] ) 2 / ( ) 2 / cos[( 2 ) , (
) 2 1 ) 2 1
t x
k k
t x k A t x y
e e
e
+

+
A A =
Beats and Pulses
Two tuning forks are struck simultaneously. The vibrate at 512 and 768 Hz.
(a) What is the frequency of the separation between peaks in the beat envelope?
(b) What is the velocity of the beat envelope?
Beats and Pulses
Two tuning forks are struck simultaneously. The vibrate at 512 and 768 Hz.
(a) What is the separation between peaks in the beat envelope?
(b) What is the velocity of the beat envelope?

(a)
The rapidly oscillating wave is multiplied by a more slowly varying envelope
with wave vector
]
2
(
2
(
sin[ ] ) 2 / ( ) 2 / cos[( 2 ) , (
) 2 1 ) 2 1
t x
k k
t x k A t x y
e e
e
+

+
A A =
phase beat
beat
beat beat
beat
phase phase
phase phase
phase
phase
v v so th of waveleng t independen is sound of speed ce result Expected
k v b
m k notes beat between ce Dis
m k k k
m v f v k
m v f v k
mph s m sound of speed the is v
f f k v
k k k
=
= = A A =
= = =
= = =
= = = =
= = = =
= = =
= A

sin
344 ) 35 . 9 03 . 14 /( ) 512 768 ( 2 ) 2 / /( ) 2 / ( ) (
70 . 2 33 . 2 / 2 / 2 : tan
33 . 2 2 / ) 35 . 9 0 . 14 ( 2 / ) (
35 . 9 344 / 512 2 / 2 /
03 . 14 344 / 768 2 / 2 /
) 770 ( / 344 ,
, ) / 2 /( 2 /
2 / ) ( 2 /
1
1 2
1
1 1 1
1
2 2 2
1 2
t e
t t
t t e
t t e
t e e
Construction Particles From Waves
Particles are localized in space
Waves are extended in space.
It is possible to build localized entities from a
superposition of number of waves with different
values of k-vector. For a continuum of waves, the
superposition is an integral over a continuum of
waves with different k-vectors.
The wave then has a non-zero amplitude only within a
limited region of space
Such wave is called wave packet

Wave Packet
Mathematically a wave packet can be written as
sum (integral) of many ideal sinusoidal waves






Wave Picture of Particle
Consider a wave packet made up of waves with a
distribution of wave vectors k, A(k), at time t. A
snapshot
,
of the wave in space along the x-
direction is obtained by summing over waves
with the full distribution of k-vectors. For a
continuum this is an integral.
The spatial distribution at a time t given by:


}

= +
0
) cos( ) ( ) , ( dk t kx k A t x e
Wave Picture of Particle
1. A(k) is spiked at a given k
0
, and
zero elsewhere
only one wave with k = k
0
( =
0
)
contributes; thus one knows
momentum exactly, and the
wavefunction is a traveling wave
particle is delocalized
2. A(k) is the same for all k
No distinctions for momentums, so
particles position is well defined -
the wavefunction is a spike,
representing a very localized
particle
3. A(k) is shaped as a bell-curve
Gives a wave packet partially
localized particle
Wave Picture of Particle
The greater the range of wave numbers (and
therefore s) in the mix, the narrower the
width of the wave packet and the more
localized the particle
Group Velocity for Particles and Waves
The group velocity in term of particle parameters is



Consider a free non-relativistic particle. The total,
energy for this particle is, E = E
k
= p
2
/2m
( )
( ) dp
dE
p d
E d
dk
d
v
g
= = =

e
particle
particle
g
k
g
u
m
mu
m
p
v
m
p
m
p
dp
d
dp
dE
dp
dE
v
= = =
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
= = =
2
2
Group Velocity
The group speed of wave packet is identical to the
speed of the corresponding particle,




Is this true for photon, for which u = c?
For photon total energy E = pc





( ) c pc
dp
d
dp
dE
v
g
= = =
dp
dE
v u
g particle
= =
Group Velocity in Optical Fiber
A pulse of light is launched in an optical fiber. The amplitude A(k) of the pulses
is peaked in the telecommunications band at the wavelength in air, = 1,500 nm.
The optical fiber is dispersive, with n = 1.50 + 10
2
/, near = 1,500 nm, where is
expressed in nm. What is the group velocity?
Group Velocity in Optical Fiber
A pulse of light is launched in an optical fiber. The amplitude A(k) of the pulses
is peaked in the telecommunications band at the wavelength in air, = 1,500 nm.
The optical fiber is dispersive, with n = 1.50 + 10
2
/, near = 1,500 nm, where is
expressed in nm. What is the group velocity?
567 . 1
10 5 . 1
10
5 . 1 ),
10
1 ( ))
10
( 1 (
)
2
(
2
)
2
(
2
2
,
2
)
1
(
)
1
( ) (
,
3
2 2
2
2
2
2
2 2 2 2
2
2 2
=

+ = =

+ =
+ = = = =
= =
= = + = =
= = = =
n
n n
c
n n
c
dk
d
d
dn
n
c
n
c
d
dn
n
c
n
c
k d
dn
n
c
n
c
dk
d
d
dn
n
ck
n
c
dk
d
k dk
d
so
k
But
dk
d
d
dn
n
ck
n
c
dk
dn
n
ck
n
c
dk
n
d
ck
n
c
dk
k
n
c
d
dk
d
dk
d
v k
n
c
n
c
k
v
g p

e

t t

t

e
t t

e
e
e
e