AE 2303

AERODYNAMICS-II
Dr.S.Elangovan
Introduction

Review of prerequisite elements

Perfect gas

Thermodynamics laws

Isentropic flow

Conservation laws

Speed of sound

Analogous concept

Derivation of speed of sound

Mach number
Review of prerequisite elements

Perfect gas:
Equation of state
For calorically perfect gas
T
q
ds

RT P
v
p
v p
v
p
c
c
R c c
dT c du
dT c dh
RT u h
T u u

) (
Entropy
Entropy changes?
1
]
1

1
]
1

1
]
1

+
1
]
1

1
2
1
2
1 2
2
1
1
2
1 2
ln ln
ln ln
P
P
R
T
T
c s s
R
T
T
c s s
p
v

p
v
c R
p
c R
v
P
P
c
s s
T
T
c
s s
T
T

,
_

1
1
]
1

,
_

1
]
1

1
2 1 2
1
2
1
2 1 2
1
2
exp
exp

T
vdP dh
T
Pdv du
ds

Review of prerequisite elementsCont.

Forms of the 1
st
law
dp dh Tds
pd de Tds
e w q

+
+
T
q
ds

The second law

Review of prerequisite elements Cont.

,
_

,
_

,
_

1
2
1
2
1
1
2
1
1
2
1
2
P
P
P
P
T
T
For an isentropic flow

1
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
1
2
1
2
1
2

,
_

,
_

,
_

,
_

P
P
P
P
T
T
T
T
p
v
c
R
c
R
If ds=o
constant

P
Review of prerequisite elements Cont.
Conservation of mass (steady flow):
Rate of mass
enters control
volume
Rate of mass
leaves control
volume
=
1 2
dA A
dV V
d
+
+
+
A
V

dx
flow
A
dA
V
dV
A
dA
V
dV d
VdA AdV VAd
dA A dV V d VA
A V A V
m m

+ +
+ +
+ + +

0
0
) )( )( (
2 2 2 1 1 1
2 1

If is constant (incompressible):
Review of prerequisite elements Cont.
Conservation of momentum (steady flow):
Rate momentum
leaves control
volume
Rate momentum
enters control
volume
-
Net force on
gas in control
volume
=
( ) ( )
1 2
V m V m F F
p
+

Euler equation (frictionless flow):

+ constant
2
2

dp V
1 2
dA A
dV V
d
dp p
+
+
+
+

A
V
p

dx
flow
Review of prerequisite elements Cont.

,
_

+ +

,
_

+ + +
e
e
e e i
i
i i
CV
gz
V
u m gz
V
u m W Q
dt
dE
2 2
2 2


heat transfer energy transfer due to mass flow work transfer
Basic principle:

Change of energy in a CV is related to

energy transfer by heat, work, and energy in
the mass flow.
Conservation of energy for a CV (energy balance):
Review of prerequisite elements Cont.
i e p
p CV
W W W
W W W



+
( )

,
_

+ +

,
_

+ + +
+

,
_

+ + +

,
_

+ + + +

,
_

+ +

,
_

+ + +
e
e
e e i
i
i i CV
CV
e
e
e e e e i
i
i i i i CV
CV
e
e
e e i
i
i i i i i e e e CV
CV
gz
V
h m gz
V
h m W Q
dt
dE
pv u h
gz
V
v p u m gz
V
v p u m W Q
dt
dE
gz
V
u m gz
V
u m v p m v p m W Q
dt
dE
2 2
2 2
2 2
2 2
2 2
2 2






pv m W
AV v m AV m
V F W pA F
p
p p p

Most important form

of energy balance.
Analyzing more about Rate of Work Transfer:
work can be separated into 2 types:
work associated with fluid pressure as mass entering or leaving the CV.
other works such as expansion/compression, electrical, shaft, etc.
Work due to fluid pressure:
fluid pressure acting on the CV boundary creates force.
Review of prerequisite elements Cont.
( )
( )
2
2 2
2 2
2 2
i e
i e
i
i i
e
e e
V V
h h dw dq
V
h m
V
h m W Q

,
_

,
_

+

1 2
dV V
dh h
dT T
+
+
+
V
h
T
dx
flow
T c h
p

For adiabatic flow (no heat transfer)

and no work:
For calorically perfect gas (dc
p
=dc
v
=0):
0 +VdV dT c
p
Conservation of mass
(compressible flow):
Conservation of
momentum
(frictionless flow):
Conservation of energy
(adiabatic):
0
2 1
+ +
A
dA
V
dV d
m m

( ) ( ) 0
1 2
+ + VdV
dP
V m V m F F
p

( )
( )
0
2
2 2
+

+ VdV dT c
V V
h h dw dq
p
i e
i e
Review of prerequisite elements Cont.
Conservation laws
Group Exercises 1
1. Given that standard atmospheric conditions for air at 15
0
C are a
pressure of 1.013 bar and a density of 1.225kg, calculate the gas
constant for air. Ans: R=287.13J/kgK
2. The value of Cv for air is 717J/kgK. The value of R=287 J/kgK.
Calculate the specific enthalpy of air at 20
0
C. Derive a relation
connecting Cp, Cv, R. Use this relation to calculate Cp for air using
the information above. Ans: h=294.2kJ/kgK,Cp=1.004kJ/kgK
3. Air is stored in a cylinder at a pressure of 10 bar, and at a room
temperature of 25
0
C. How much volume will 1kg of air occupy
inside the cylinder? The cylinder is rated for a maximum pressure of
15 bar. At what temperature would this pressure be reached? Ans:
V=0.086m2, T=174
0
C.
Speed of sound
0 V
T
P

dV V
dT T
d
dP P

+
+
+

Sound wave
Sounds are the small pressure disturbances in the gas around us,
analogous to the surface ripples produced when still water is disturbed
a V
T
P

dV a V
dT T
d
dP P

+
+
+

Sound wave
Sound wave moving
through stationary gas
Gas moving through
stationary sound wave
Derivation of speed of sound
Speed of sound cont.
( ) ( )
a
dV d
A dV a d aA m

( ) ( )
adV dP
a m dV a m A dP P PA

+
d
dp
a
constant
1
2
1
2

,
_

P
P
P
RT
P
a
P
d
dP

Conservation of mass
Conservation of momentum
Combination of mass and momentum
For
isentropic flow
Finally
Mach Number
M=V/a
Source of
disturbance
Distance traveled =
speed x time = 4at
Zone of
silence
Region of
influence
If M=0
M<1 Subsonic
M=1 Sonic
M>1 Supersonic
M>5 Hypersonic
Distance traveled = at
Mach Number cont.
Source of
disturbance
If M=0.5
Original location
of source of
disturbance
Mach Number cont.
Source of
disturbance
If M=2
Original location
of source of
disturbance
ut
ut
ut
ut
M ut
at 1
sin
Mach wave:
Direction
of motion
Normal and Oblique
Shock

A shock wave (also called shock front or

simply "shock") is a type of propagating
disturbance. Like an ordinary wave, it carries
energy and can propagate through a medium
(solid, liquid, gas or plasma) or in some
cases in the absence of a material medium,
through a field such as the electromagnetic
field.

Shock waves are characterized by an abrupt,

nearly discontinuous change in the
characteristics of the medium. Across a
shock there is always an extremely rapid rise
in pressure, temperature and density of the
flow. In supersonic flows, expansion is
achieved through an expansion fan. A shock
wave travels through most media at a higher
speed than an ordinary wave.

Unlike solutions (another kind of nonlinear wave), the

energy of a shock wave dissipates relatively quickly
with distance. Also, the accompanying expansion
wave approaches and eventually merges with the
shock wave, partially canceling it out. Thus the sonic
boom associated with the passage of a supersonic
aircraft is the sound wave resulting from the
degradation and merging of the shock wave and the
expansion wave produced by the aircraft.

Thus the sonic boom associated with the

passage of a supersonic aircraft is the sound
wave resulting from the degradation and
merging of the shock wave and the
expansion wave produced by the aircraft.

When a shock wave passes through matter,

the total energy is preserved but the energy
which can be extracted as work decreases
and entropy increases. This, for example,
creates additional drag force on aircraft with
shocks.
Oblique Shock

An oblique shock wave, unlike a normal shock, is

inclined with respect to the incident upstream flow
direction.

It will occur when a supersonic flow encounters a

corner that effectively turns the flow into itself and
compresses.

The upstream streamlines are uniformly deflected

after the shock wave. The most common way to
produce an oblique shock wave is to place a wedge
into supersonic, compressible flow. Similar to a
normal shock wave, the oblique shock wave consists
of a very thin region across which nearly
discontinuous changes in the thermodynamic
properties of a gas occur. While the upstream and
downstream flow directions are unchanged across a
normal shock, they are different for flow across an
oblique shock wave.

It is always possible to convert an oblique

shock into a normal shock by a Galilean
transformation.
EXPANSIONWAVES,RAYLEIGH AND
FANNO FLOW

A Prandtl-Meyer expansion fan is a centered expansion

process, which turns a supersonic flow around a convex
corner.

The fan consists of an infinite number of Mach waves,

diverging from a sharp corner. In case of a smooth corner,
these waves can be extended backwards to meet at a point.

Each wave in the expansion fan turns the flow

gradually (in small steps). It is physically impossible to
turn the flow away from itself through a single "shock"
wave because it will violate the second law of
thermodynamics. Across the expansion fan, the flow
accelerates (velocity increases) and the Mach number
increases, while the static pressure, temperature and
density decrease. Since the process is isentropic, the
stagnation properties remain constant across the fan.
Prandtl-Meyer Function

2

1
= (M2) (M1)
Rayleigh flow

Rayleigh flow refers to diabetic flow through a

constant area duct where the effect of heat addition or
rejection is considered. Compressibility effects often
come into consideration, although the Rayleigh flow
model certainly also applies to incompressible flow.
For this model, the duct area remains constant and no
mass is added within the duct. Therefore, unlike
Fanno flow, the stagnation temperature is a variable.
Rayleigh flow

The heat addition causes a decrease in stagnation

pressure, which is known as the Rayleigh effect and is
critical in the design of combustion systems. Heat
addition will cause both supersonic and subsonic
Mach numbers to approach Mach 1, resulting in
choked flow. Conversely, heat rejection decreases a
subsonic Mach number and increases a supersonic
Mach number along the duct. It can be shown that for
calorically perfect flows the maximum entropy occurs
at M = 1. Rayleigh flow is named after John Strutt, 3rd
Baron Rayleigh.

Solving the differential equation leads to the relation shown

below, where T0* is the stagnation temperature at the throat
location of the duct which is required for thermally choking the
flow.

These values are significant in the design of combustion

systems. For example, if a turbojet combustion chamber has a
maximum temperature of T0* = 2000 K, T0 and M at the
entrance to the combustion chamber must be selected so
thermal choking does not occur, which will limit the mass flow
rate of air into the engine and decrease thrust.

For the Rayleigh flow model, the dimensionless change in

entropy relation is shown below.
Fanno flow

Fanno flow refers to adiabatic flow through a constant area

duct where the effect of friction is considered.Compressibility
effects often come into consideration, although the Fanno flow
model certainly also applies to incompressible flow. For this
model, the duct area remains constant, the flow is assumed to
be steady and one-dimensional, and no mass is added within
the duct. The Fanno flow model is considered an irreversible
process due to viscous effects. The viscous friction causes the
flow properties to change along the duct. The frictional effect is
modeled as a shear stress at the wall acting on the fluid with
uniform properties over any cross section of the duct.
Fanno flow

For a flow with an upstream Mach number greater

than 1.0 in a sufficiently long enough duct,
deceleration occurs and the flow can become choked.
On the other hand, for a flow with an upstream Mach
number less than 1.0, acceleration occurs and the
flow can become choked in a sufficiently long duct. It
can be shown that for flow of calorically perfect gas
the maximum entropy occurs at M = 1.0. Fanno flow
is named after Gino Girolamo Fanno.
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF
MOTION FOR STEADY
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
TRANSONIC FLOW OVER WING

In aerodynamics, the critical Mach number

(Mcr) of an aircraft is the lowest Mach
number at which the airflow over a small
region of the wing reaches the speed of
sound.
Critical Mach Number (M
cr
)

For all aircraft in flight, the airflow around the aircraft

is not exactly the same as the airspeed of the aircraft
due to the airflow speeding up and slowing down to
travel around the aircraft structure. At the Critical
Mach number, local airflow in some areas near the
airframe reaches the speed of sound, even though the
aircraft itself has an airspeed lower than Mach 1.0.
This creates a weak shock wave. At speeds faster
than the Critical Mach number:

drag coefficient increases suddenly, causing

dramatically increased drag

in aircraft not designed for transonic or

supersonic speeds, changes to the airflow
over the flight control surfaces lead to
deterioration in control of the aircraft.

In aircraft not designed to fly at the Critical Mach

number, shock waves in the flow over the wing and
tail plane were sufficient to stall the wing, make
control surfaces ineffective or lead to loss of control
such as Mach tuck. The phenomena associated with
problems at the Critical Mach number became known
as compressibility. Compressibility led to a number of
accidents involving high-speed military and
experimental aircraft in the 1930s and 1940s.
Drag Divergence Mach Number

The drag divergence Mach number is the

Mach number at which the aerodynamic drag
on an airfoil or airframe begins to increase
rapidly as the Mach number continues to
increase. This increase can cause the drag
coefficient to rise to more than ten times its
low speed value.

The value of the drag divergence Mach

number is typically greater than 0.6; therefore
it is a transonic effect. The drag divergence
Mach number is usually close to, and always
greater than, the critical Mach number.
Generally, the drag coefficient peaks at Mach
1.0 and begins to decrease again after the
transition into the supersonic regime above
approximately Mach 1.2.

The large increase in drag is caused by the

formation of a shock wave on the upper
surface of the airfoil, which can induce flow
separation and adverse pressure gradients
on the aft portion of the wing. This effect
requires that aircraft intended to fly at
supersonic speeds have a large amount of
thrust.

In early development of transonic and supersonic

aircraft, a steep dive was often used to provide extra
acceleration through the high drag region around
Mach 1.0. In the early days of aviation, this steep
increase in drag gave rise to the popular false notion
of an unbreakable sound barrier, because it seemed
that no aircraft technology in the foreseeable future
would have enough propulsive force or control
authority to overcome it. Indeed, one of the popular
analytical methods for calculating drag at high
speeds, the Prandtl-Glauert rule, predicts an infinite
amount of drag at Mach 1.0.

Two of the important technological advancements that

arose out of attempts to conquer the sound barrier
were the Whitcomb area rule and the supercritical
airfoil. A supercritical airfoil is shaped specifically to
make the drag divergence Mach number as high as
possible, allowing aircraft to fly with relatively lower
drag at high subsonic and low transonic speeds.
These, along with other advancements including
computational fluid dynamics, have been able to
reduce the factor of increase in drag to two or three
for modern aircraft designs
swept wing

A swept wing is a wing platform with a wing

root to wingtip direction angled beyond
(usually aft ward) the span wise axis,
generally used to delay the drag rise caused
by fluid compressibility.
swept wing

Unusual variants of this design feature are

forward sweep, variable sweep wings , and
pivoting wings. Swept wings as a means of
reducing wave drag were first used on jet
fighter aircraft. Today, they have become
almost universal on all but the slowest jets
(such as the A-10), and most faster airliners
and business jets. The four-engine propeller-
driven TU-95 aircraft has swept wings.

The angle of sweep which characterizes a

swept wing is conventionally measured along
the 25% chord line. If the 25% chord line
varies in sweep angle, the leading edge is
used; if that varies, the sweep is expressed
in sections (e.g., 25 degrees from 0 to 50%
span, 15 degrees from 50% to wingtip).
Transonic Area Rule

Within the limitations of small perturbation theory, at a given transonic

Mach number, aircraft with the same longitudinal distribution of cross-
sectional area, including fuselage, wings and all appendages will, at
zero lift, have the same wave drag.

Why: Mach waves under transonic conditions are perpendicular to

flow.

Implication:

Keep area distribution smooth, constant if possible.

Else, strong shocks and hence drag result.

Wing-body interaction leading to shock formation:

Observed: cp distributions are such that

maximum velocity is reached far aft at root
and far forward at tip.
Hence, streamlines curves in at the root,
compress, shock propagates out.

Transonic Area Rule
Transonic Area Rule

In fluid dynamics, potential flow describes

the velocity field as the gradient of a scalar
function: the velocity potential..

As a result, a potential flow is characterized

by an irrotational velocity field, which is a
valid approximation for several applications.
The irrotationality of a potential flow is due to
the curl of a gradient always being equal to
zero

In the case of an incompressible flow the velocity

potential satisfies Laplace's equation. However,
potential flows also have been used to describe
compressible flows. The potential flow approach
occurs in the modeling of both stationary as well as
nonstationary flows.

Applications of potential flow are for instance: the

outer flow field for aerofoils, water waves, and
groundwater flow. For flows (or parts thereof) with
strong vorticity effects, the potential flow
approximation is not applicable.
Mach wave

In fluid dynamics, a Mach wave is a pressure

wave traveling with the speed of sound
caused by a slight change of pressure added
to a compressible flow.
Mach stem or Mach front

These weak waves can combine in

supersonic flow to become a shock wave if
sufficient Mach waves are present at any
location. Such a shock wave is called a
Mach stem or Mach front.
Mach angle

Thus it is possible to have shock less

compression or expansion in a supersonic
flow by having the production of Mach waves
sufficiently spaced (cf. isentropic
compression in supersonic flows). A Mach
wave is the weak limit of an oblique shock
wave (a normal shock is the other limit). They
propagate across the flow at the Mach angle
.

where M is the Mach number.

Mach waves can be used in schlieren or

shadowgraph observations to determine the local
Mach number of the flow. Early observations by Ernst
Mach used grooves in the wall of a duct to produce
Mach waves in a duct, which were then photographed
by the schlieren method, to obtain data about the flow
in nozzles and ducts. Mach angles may also
occasionally be visualized out of their condensation in
air, as in the jet photograph below.

U.S. Navy F/A-18 breaking the sound barrier.

The white halo is formed by condensed water
droplets which are thought to result from an
increase in air pressure behind the shock
wave(see Prandtl-Glauert Singularity). The
Mach angle of the weak attached shock
made visible by the halo, is seen to be close
to arcsine (1) = 90 degrees.