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CURRENT

Current (I) is the amount of charge per time that passes through an area perpendicular to the flow: I=

Current is measured in SI units of amperes (A), and

This definition for current can be applied to charges moving in a wire, in an electrolytic cell, or even in ionized gases.

One can relate the current I in a material to properties of the atomic charges. Suppose in the material there are n charges per unit volume, each carrying a charge q . When acted upon by an electric field these charges begin to move; let us associate an average drift velocity vd with each individual charge. Consider now a section of the material with cross-sectional area A , as in Fig. on the next slide.

Figure 1 - Cross-section of a wire carrying moving charges

In a time t a charge Q has moved a distance Since Q = (nA x)q , we have for the current I= = nAq = nAqvd

x.

RESISTANCE

In many materials there is a simple relation between the applied potential difference V across two points and the resulting current I between those points. Such materials are called Ohmic materials, and obey what is called Ohm's law: V = IR.

R is a constant called the resistance of the material, which has units of V/A, or Ohms ( ).

The resistance depends on the type of material materials with low resistance are called good conductors, while those with high resistance are good insulators. It also depends on the shape of the material. It is convenient in some circumstances to introduce a quantity called the resistivity, , which depends only on the type of material. If we consider a cylindrical wire of cross-sectional area A and length L , the resistivity is defined as

R=

The resistance of a conductor depends upon its length (l), its cross-sectional area (A), and its resistivity ( r). The resistivity for a specific conductor can be found in a table of properties of materials. The unit of resistivity is the ohmmeter. Resistance to current in a conductor arises because the flow of moving charges is impeded by the material of the wire. It is intuitive that the resistance should increase with the length of the wire, be inversely proportional to the crosssectional area (less resistance for a larger area), and depend upon the wire substance. The relationship between resistance and resistivity is

Note: A resistor is a specific electronic component whose only function is to resist current. A resistance is generated by anything impeding current, for example, a light bulb or heating element.

EMF

The source of electric energy that causes charges to move in electric circuits is the emf. Historically such energy sources were called electromotive force, however, it is not a "force" but a potential energy per unit charge, or voltage. Thus we strongly discourage the use of the term "electromotive force." The short form, emf, is the preferred name. A good example of such a source of electric energy is a battery. For now we will consider only a battery with a constant source of voltage. This leads to a constant current, or a steady state current, or an equilibrium current. We also know this tern as direct-current, or DC. When a battery is placed in a circuit loop with other circuit elements, such as capacitors or resistors, a DC current flows. The circuit must be a closed loop.

Consider a flashlight. WE have a battery and a light bulb in a closed loop. The light bulb is just a resistor through which a current flows. It heats the filament (a very thin wire) of the bulb and it glows giving off light. This continues until we turn it off (break the closed loop), or until the battery becomes discharged. A similar situation exists with an automobile battery (12 volts) and the headlights. Here the current is much larger than in the flashlight, but the proceedure is the same. We refer to these light bulbs as the load resistance.

Either of the above batteries have two terminals, two conductors to connect the battery to the external circuit. In a simple picture, one can consider the negative terminal to be a large source of electrons that can flow under the proper circumstances. The positive terminal can similarly be considered to be a large sink for electrons. As electrons flow into and out of the battery there is some internal resistance to flow. The internal chemistry of the battery provides some internal voltage, or emf, for the battery. The actual terminal voltage of the battery will be somewhat less due to the voltage drop over the "internal resistance." The expression describing terminal voltage is: V = emf - I r

Here V is the terminal voltage (measured between the twoterminals), emf is the true emf of the battery, I is the current being drawn from the battery, and r is the battery's internal resistance.
In order to examine the rate at which energy is drawn from the battery, we consider the potential energy per unit charge, V. If we multiply by the charge, q, we get energy. If we divide by the time, t, we get energy per unit time, or power, P. We find that: P = V q/t = V I For a resistor, this expression can be rewritten as: P = (I R) I = I2 R

DIRECT CURRENT CIRCUIT


Direct Current (DC) is the constant flow of Electric Charge from high to low Potential. In the history of electrical science, conventional Current was defined as a flow of Positive Charge. A Direct Current circuit is a circuit that Electric Current flows through in one direction. DC is commonly found in many low-voltage applications, especially where these are powered by Battery. Most electronic circuits require a DC power supply. A Direct Electric Current flows only when the Electric Circuit is closed, but it stops completely when the circuit is open.

A Switch is a device for making or breaking an Electric Circuit. While the Switch is closed, Figure 1(a), the circuit is closed and the Light Bulb turns On; while the Switch is opened, Figure 1(b), the circuit is open and the Light Bulb turns Off.

Figure 1(a): Switch is closed, the circuit is closed and the Light Bulb turns On

Figure 1(b): Switch is opened, the circuit is open and the Light Bulb turns Off

According to Ohms Law: the Current I in a (ideal) Resistor (or other ohmic device) is proportional to the applied Voltage V and inversely proportional to the Resistance R. Ohms Law: I = V / R In other words, for a fixed Resistance (R), the greater the Voltage (V) across a Resistor, the more the Current (I) flowing through it; for a fixed Voltage across a Resistor, the more the Resistance of the Resistor, the less the Current flowing through it. In Figure 2, a Resistor is added to the Direct Current Circuit, the total Resistance (R) of the circuit becomes larger but the Power Supply Voltage (V) remains unchanged, therefore, the Current (I) flowing through the circuit is reduced. With less Current flowing through, the Light Bulb becomes dimmer

Figure 2: The Circuit contains a Battery, a Light Bulb, a Resistor and a Switch

ELECTROMAGNETISM
Electromagnetism is the physics of the electromagnetic field: A field that exerts a force on particles that possess the property of electric charge, and it is in turn affected by the presence and motion of those particles. One of the four fundamental interactions in nature. The other three are the strong interaction, the weak interaction and gravitation. Electromagnetism is the force that causes the interaction between electrically charged particles; the areas in which this happens are called electromagnetic fields.

Electromagnetism is responsible for practically all the phenomena encountered in daily life, with the exception of gravity. Ordinary matter takes its form as a result of intermolecular forces between individual molecules in matter. Electromagnetism is also the force which holds electrons and protons together inside atoms, which are the building blocks of molecules. This governs the processes involved in chemistry, which arise from interactions between the electrons inside and between atoms.

Electromagnetism manifests as both electric fields and magnetic fields. Both fields are simply different aspects of electromagnetism, and hence are intrinsically related. Thus, a changing electric field generates a magnetic field; conversely a changing magnetic field generates an electric field. This effect is called electromagnetic induction, and is the basis of operation for electrical generators, induction motors, and transformers. Mathematically speaking, magnetic fields and electric fields are convertible with relative motion as a four vector.

A changing magnetic field produces an electric field, a phenomenon known as "electromagnetic induction." This phenomenon forms the basis of operation for electrical generators, induction motors, and transformers). Similarly, a changing electric field generates a magnetic field. A magnetic field is produced by the motion of electric charges, that is, an electric current. The magnetic field produces the magnetic force associated with magnets. Because of this interdependence of the electric and magnetic fields, it is appropriate to consider them as a single coherent entity, the electromagnetic field.

Electric fields are the cause of several common phenomena, such as electric potential (such as the voltage of a battery) and electric current (such as the flow of electricity through a flashlight). Magnetic fields are the cause of the force associated with magnets. In quantum electrodynamics, electromagnetic interactions between charged particles can be calculated using the method of Feynman diagrams, in which we picture messenger particles called virtual photons being exchanged between charged particles. This method can be derived from the field picture through perturbation theory.

The theoretical implications of electromagnetism led to development of the theory of special relativity by Albert Einstein in 1905.

ELECTROMAGNETIC FORCE

The force that the electromagnetic field exerts on electrically charged particles, called the electromagnetic force, is one of the fundamental forces, and is responsible for most of the forces we experience in our daily lives. The other fundamental forces are the strong nuclear force (which holds atomic nuclei together), the weak nuclear force and the gravitational force. All other forces are ultimately derived from these fundamental forces.

The electromagnetic force is the one responsible for practically all the phenomena encountered in daily life, with the exception of gravity. All the forces involved in interactions between atoms can be traced to the electromagnetic force acting on the electrically charged protons and electrons inside the atoms. This includes the forces we experience in "pushing" or "pulling" ordinary material objects, which come from the intermolecular forces between the individual molecules in our bodies and those in the objects. It also includes all forms of chemical phenomena, which arise from interactions between electron orbitals

THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

In another paper published in that same year, Albert Einstein undermined the very foundations of classical electromagnetism. His theory of the photoelectric effect (for which he won the Nobel prize for physics) posited that light could exist in discrete particlelike quantities, which later came to be known as photons. Einstein's theory of the photoelectric effect extended the insights that appeared in the solution of the ultraviolet catastrophe presented by Max Planck in 1900. In his work, Planck showed that hot objects emit electromagnetic radiation in discrete packets, which leads to a finite total energy emitted as black body radiation. Both of these results were in direct contradiction with the classical view of light as a continuous wave. Planck's and Einstein's theories were progenitors of quantum mechanics, which, when formulated in 1925, necessitated the invention of a quantum theory of electromagnetism. This theory, completed in the 1940s, is known as quantum electrodynamics (or "QED"), and, in situations where perturbation theory is applicable, is one of the most accurate theories known to physics

ELECTROMAGNETIC UNITS

Electromagnetic units are part of a system of electrical units based primarily upon the magnetic properties of electric currents, the fundamental SI unit being the ampere. The units are:

ampere (current) coulomb (charge) farad (capacitance) henry (inductance) ohm (resistance) tesla (magnetic field) volt (electric potential) watt (power) weber (flux)

In the electromagnetic cgs system, electric current is a fundamental quantity defined via Ampre's law and takes the permeability as a dimensionless quantity (relative permeability) whose value in a vacuum is unity. As a consequence, the square of the speed of light appears explicitly in some of the equations interrelating quantities in this system.

SI electromagnetism units
Symbol Name of Quantity
Electric current Q U, V, ; E R; Z; X Electric charge Potential difference; Electromotive force Electric resistance; Impedance; Reactance

Derived Units
ampere (SI base unit) coulomb volt ohm A C V

Unit

Base Units
A (= W/V = C/s) As J/C = kgm2s3A1 V/A = kgm2s3A2

P C E D

Resistivity
Electric power Capacitance Electric field strength Electric displacement field

ohm metre
watt farad volt per metre Coulomb per square metre

m
W F V/m C/m2

kgm3s3A2
VA = kgm2s3 C/V = kg1m2A2s4 N/C = kgmA1s3 Asm2

Symbol

Name of Quantity
Permittivity

Derived Units
farad per metre F/m

Unit

Base Units
kg1m3A2s4

G; Y; B

Electric susceptibility Conductance; Admittance; Susceptance

(dimensionless)

siemens

1 = kg1m2s3A2

, ,

Conductivity Magnetic flux density, Magnetic induction

siemens per metre

S/m

kg1m3s3A2 Wb/m2 = kgs2A1 = NA1m1

tesla

Magnetic flux

weber

Wb

Vs = kgm2s2A1

Magnetic field strength

ampere per metre

A/m

Am1 Wb/A = Vs/A = kgm2s2A2

L, M

Inductance

henry

Permeability

henry per metre

H/m

kgms2A2

Magnetic susceptibility

(dimensionless)

HOW ELECTROMAGNETISM WORKS

When electricity passed through a wire, a magnetic field is created around the wire. Looping the wire increases the magnetic field. Adding an iron core greatly increases the effect and creates an electromagnet. You can create an electromagnet without the iron core. That is usually called a solenoid.

MAGNETIC FIELD

When DC electricity is passed through a wire, a magnetic field rotates around the wire in a specific direction.

Magnetic field rotating around wire

COMPASS CAN SHOW FIELD

Connecting a wire to a battery and placing a compass near the wire can demonstrate a magnetic field. When the current is turned on, the compassneedle will move. If you reverse the direction of the current, the needle will move in the opposite direction.

RIGHT HAND RULE

To find the direction the magnetic field is going, you can use the "right-hand rule" to determine it. If you take your right hand and wrap it around the wire, with your thumb pointing in the direction of the electrical current (positive to negative), then your fingers are pointing in the direction of the magnetic field around the wire. Try it with the picture above.

WIRE IN A COIL

Wrapping the wire in a coil concentrates and increases the magnetic field, because the additive effect of each turn of the wire.

Coiled wire increases magnetic field

A coil of wire used to create a magnetic field is called a solenoid.

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